ings per passenger and per ton of freight are shown by the table on page 170, and it is interesting to note that a ton of freight is moved. with the lowest earnings on the man-power or "ricksha" lines.

As regards the fares on the electric lines, there is a variety of arrangements. Zone fares are used only to a limited extent in Japan, and first and second class fares also prevail only in a few instances. The Tokyo municipal system has a 6-sen (3-cent) fare for a one-way ride with transfer and a 10-sen (5-cent) fare for a round-trip ride, also including transfer. In practice this arrangement seems to work very satisfactorily. Jinrikishas are used generally in all the cities and very few well-to-do Japanese or foreigners ride on the tramways, but the latter are used very extensively by the working people in the industrial districts. Most of the interurban lines have terminal stations and fares are covered by regular tariffs; tickets are sold at the terminals and at most of the important stations, but at other points collections are made on cars. On some of the lines on which the writer rode he was unable to determine how an accurate check-up of fares could be accomplished.

EARNINGS AND EXPENSES.

For the year ended March 31, 1916, the total traffic revenues, including miscellaneous items, of the electric lines were $13,001,188 and earnings from outside undertakings and investments were $6,273,977, making the total gross income $19,275,165. Working expenses amounted to $6,076,105, expenses of outside undertakings totaled $2,865,443, and interest charges amounted to $3,709,284representing a total deduction from gross earnings of $12,650,832 and leaving a profit of $6,624,333, or 6.4 per cent on the cost of construction after the payment of all fixed charges. The above results give an operating ratio of 46.8 per cent for the electric tramways. The operating ratios of the other classes of tramways are shown by the table on page 169.

EMPLOYEES AND WAGES.

Of the 14,538 electric-line employees on March 31, 1916, 5,963 were conductors and 5,003 were motormen or, as they are called in Japan, "drivers." The writer was unable to obtain what he considered reliable data regarding wages. No data on the details of this subject are given in the annual report of the Imperial Government Railways.

ROADWAY AND TRACK.

Tramway location is usually rather difficult in Japan, as applying to both city and interurban lines, on account of the limitations in securing adequate right of way or sufficient room on streets and roads, many of which are crooked and narrow. Most of the older interurban lines were indifferently located and constructed, but some of the more recent ones have been well located and substantially constructed, as illustrated by the line between Osaka and Nara, which is a high-speed line with first-class construction in every respect. On this line there are three well-built double-track tunnels, one of which is about 2.1 miles in length.

The track work on all the lines is very similar to the ordinary American practice, and a considerable amount of the special work is of American manufacture. A great variety of gauge has been used, but a majority of the lines are 4 feet 8 inches. The rail, as one might expect, is of very great variety of weight and section. The overhead construction is mostly along American lines, with the ordinary single trolley. In a few instances pantagraph contacts are used.

ROLLING STOCK.

As would naturally be expected, there is a great variety of rolling stock on the different lines, but many of the trucks and car frames, as well as a considerable number of the car bodies, have been furnished in the past by American manufacturers. There are several concerns in Japan that have been paying close attention to the furnishing of tramway rolling stock in recent years, one of the most important being the Tokyo Works of the Kisha Seizo Kaisha.

There is a very great variety of electrical equipment, but a majority of the motors and control are of American manufacture, furnished mostly by the companies that have connections with Japanese commercial and engineering contracting concerns. A very noticeable amount, however, of other electrical equipment has been used, particularly German, English, and Swedish, in the order named.

POWER PLANTS AND SUBSTATIONS.

Practically the same remarks can be made about the power-house and converter equipment as about the electric car equipment. At present most of the power is furnished by steam plants, but there appears to be a decided tendency in such situations as the Osaka district to connect up to central power plants, and there is also a strong tendency to utilize hydroelectric sources where such are available.

OFFICIALS-PURCHASES.

The writer spent considerable time in determining what could be done in the way of the preparation of a directory, and although this was found to be practicable for some of the more important lines, the results as a whole were such that it was decided not to attempt to include the usual directory for any of the tramways. The municipal tramways in each case are under the general direction of the mayor. The large systems, particularly at Tokyo, Osaka, Kyoto, and Kobe (all municipally operated), and the Keihan, Nagoya, and other similar privately owned lines, have organized purchasing branches, and while many of the requirements have been and will continue to be supplied from American sources, this business is closely controlled by the concerns now handling it. Large electrical companies are not only represented in all cases by strong Japanese commercial companies, but as a rule they have their own representative in Japan cooperating with these Japanese concerns. Further, some of the most prominent American electrical companies have established well-equipped factories in Japan, which are not only handling the Japanese business but in some instances are sending their products to China, Manchuria, and Korea.

Part 3. CHOSEN (KOREA).

I. GENERAL INFORMATION.

INTRODUCTION.

Chosen (Korea) is an elongated peninsula between 33° and 43° north latitude and 124° and 131° east longitude. Its length from northwest to southeast is about 900 miles, and its width from northeast to southwest is something less than 250 miles. Its area is approximately 84,100 square miles, or about the same as that of the State of Minnesota.

The estimates of the population, as in the case of most oriental countries, vary considerably, but roughly it may be said to comprise about 16,000,000 Koreans, 15,000 or 20,000 Chinese, 1,100 to 1,200 Europeans and Americans, and something less than 500,000 Japa

nese.

The climate for the greater part of the year is mild and dry. The northern and central parts of the country have cold, dry winters. There is a rainy season of something over a month beginning with great regularity before the middle of July and lasting until after the middle of August. During this period the weather is hot and considerable humidity prevails.

The fauna of Chosen includes several species of deer, the tiger, leopard, wild boar, bear, wolf, fox, and numerous fur-bearing animals, among which the sable and sea otter are the most valuable. Game birds of considerable variety and all kinds of domestic fowls abound. The entire peninsula is well stocked with cattle, horses, and pigs.

The history of Chosen goes back many centuries, like that of China. One of the results of the Russo-Japanese war was the establishment of a protectorate over Korea by Japan, this being followed by annexation August 1, 1910. Chosen is now administered by a resident Japanese Governor General, the administration being under the Colonial Department of the Imperial Government of Japan.

PRODUCTS OF THE COUNTRY.

In the past Chosen has been largely an agricultural country, with rice the leading product and beans, oats, and wheat raised in considerable quantities. Lumber from northern Chosen is also an important product, but the central and southern sections have been largely denuded of timber and extensive afforestation by the Japanese authorities is now under way.

Coal is now the principal mineral product, and for the year ended March 31, 1916, it constituted the largest item of traffic over Korean railways. The largest deposits at present developed are those near Pingyang (Heijyo), about half way from Seoul to Antung, near the main line of the Korean railways. Considerable quantities of copper, gold, and graphite are produced-the copper in increasing quantities.

The development of iron mining is being energetically pursued near Pingyang, where a Japanese company is erecting blast furnaces, which will depend entirely upon Korean and Manchurian ores and fuel.

EXPORTS AND IMPORTS.

The principal Korean exports are beans, ores, and rice; the principal imports are coal, sugar, tobacco, and manufactured articles. The exports for the five years from 1911 to 1916 were practically the same from year to year, but the imports increased about fourfold. Many of the goods represented by this increase, particularly the railway equipment, came from American sources, being handled largely by Japanese concerns or American concerns with branches in Japan.

MANUFACTURING.

Little modern manufacturing is done in Chosen. Korean railways have complete workshops at Ryusan near Seoul, and there is a tendency to do a very considerable amount of their own manufacturing in these shops. The tramways in Seoul are also doing most of their own car building at present, buying the necessary parts where they can be obtained to best advantage.

TRADE CENTERS.

Seoul (Keijyo) is the capital and principal business center of Korea; Chemulpo (Jinsen), 25 miles by rail from Seoul, is the principal port, but Fusan is the southern terminus of the Korean railway, and for this reason is of growing importance, particularly as it is only about 10 hours' run for vessels from Shimonoseki. Shingishu (across the Yalu River from Antung), the northern terminus of the Korean railway, is also of growing commercial importance, particularly on account of its harbor at the mouth of the Yalu River and the lumber coming down this river from the northern parts of Korea. Pingyang (Heijyo), on account of its fuel and mineral resources, will probably become one of the important industrial centers of Chosen, and this will cause additional development of the already important port of Chinnampo, connected by a 35-mile branch railway with Pingyang.

LABOR CONDITIONS.

Physically the native Koreans resemble in general the northern Chinese, and when properly handled make fairly good workmen for many lines of heavy industrial work.

Of the 531 officials of various grades in the employ of Korean railways March 31, 1916, all were Japanese; of the 8,699 wage employees 5,359 were Japanese, 3,328 were Koreans, and 12 were Chinese. It is usual, however, for the Japanese to fill the more or less skilled occupations and to depend on the Koreans to do the labor. As illustrating this, it may be stated that all of the administrative, technical, and engineering employees of the Ryuzan workshops are Japanese, but about 70 per cent of the artizans and laborers are Koreans. In the railway shops the Koreans make very good workers, especially in foundry moulding, brass work, and wood work; they do very well, also, on machine tools and erecting work. The writer was told by