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WOODROW WILSON INTERNATIONAL CENTER FOR SCHOLARS

Cold War International History Project

Lee H. Hamilton, Director

EDITOR: CHRISTIAN F. OSTERMANN

BOARD OF TRUSTEES

Joseph A. Cari, Jr., Chairman

EX OFFICIO MEMBERS: The Secretary of State,
The Secretary of Health & Human
Services, The Secretary of Education, The
Chairman of the National Endowment for

the Humanities, The Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution, The Librarian of
Congress, The Director of the U.S.
Information Agency, The Archivist of the
United States.

PRIVATE CITIZEN MEMBERS: Steven Alan Bennett, Daniel L. Doctoroff, Jean L. Hennessey, Eli Jacobs, Daniel L. Lamaute, Paul Hae Park, Thomas R. Reedy, S. Dillion Ripley.

DESIGNATED BY THE PRESIDENT: Samuel R.

Berger

THE WILSON COUNCIL

Albert Abramson, J. Burchenal Ault, Charles F. Barber, Theodore C. Barreaux, Joseph C. Bell, John L. Bryant, Jr., Conrad Cafritz, Nicola L. Caiola, Albert V. Casey, Peter B. Clark, William T. Coleman, Jr., Michael D. DiGiacomo, Frank P. Doyle, Donald G. Drapkin, F. Samuel Eberts III, I. Steven Edelson, Barbara Hackman Franklin, Alma Gildenhorn, Joseph B. Gildenhorn, David F. Girard-diCarlo, Michael B. Goldberg, Raymond A. Guenter, Robert R. Harlin, Eric Hotung, Frances Humphrey Howard, John L. Howard, Dennis D. Jorgensen, Christopher Kennan, Steven Kotler, William H.

Kremer, Kathleen D. Lacey, Donald S. Lamm, Harold Levy, Edwin S. Marks, C. Peter McColough, James D. McDonald,

Michael W. Mitchell, Jeremiah L. Murphy, Martha T. Muse, Gerald L. Parsky, L. Richardson Preyer, Edward V. Regan, J. Steven Rhodes, Edwin Robbins, Philip E. Rollhaus, Jr., George P. Shultz, Raja W. Sidawi, Ron Silver, William A. Slaughter, Timothy E. Stapleford, Linda Bryant Valentine, Deborah Wince-Smith, Herbert S. Winokur, Jr.

ADVISING EDITOR: JAMES G. HERSHBERG

ASSISTANT EDITOR/PRODUCTION MANAGER: KARIN I. MUELLER
ASSISTANT EDITOR/BULLETIN ADMINISTRATOR: NANCY L. MEYERS

The Cold War International History Project (CWIHP) was established at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars in Washington, D.C., in 1991 with the help of the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation and receives major support from the MacArthur Foundation and the Smith Richardson Foundation. The Project supports the full and prompt release of historical materials by governments on all sides of the Cold War, and seeks to disseminate new information and perspectives on Cold War history emerging from previously inaccessible sources on “the other side”—the former Communist bloc-through publications, fellowships, and scholarly meetings and conferences. Within the Wilson Center, CWIHP is under the Division of International Studies, headed by Dr. Robert S. Litwak. The Director of the Cold War International History Project is Christian F. Ostermann and the Project's Administrator is Nancy L. Meyers. CWIHP is overseen by an advisory committee chaired by Prof. William Taubman (Amherst College) and consisting of Michael Beschloss; Dr. James Billington (Librarian of Congress); Prof. Warren I. Cohen (University of Maryland-Baltimore); Prof. John Lewis Gaddis (Yale University); Dr. Samuel F. Wells, Jr. (Woodrow Wilson Center); and Prof. Sharon Wolchik (George Washington University). Readers are invited to submit articles, documents, letters, and other items to the Bulletin. Publication of articles does not constitute CWIHP's endorsement of authors' views. Copies are available free upon request, or by downloading them at cwihp.si.edu.

SPECIAL THANKS TO RESEARCH ASSISTANTS:

GREG Domber, Ryan Gingeras, Christina HARTMAN,

CHRISTIAAN HETZNER, ALINA LI, ADAM KUTCHER, LENA SIROTA, AND JOHN TENT

SPECIAL THANKS ALSO TO: JORDAN BAEV, TOM BLANTON, MALCOLM BYRNE, MICHELE Carus-Christian, RAYMOND
GARTHOFF, CHEN JIAN, MARK KRAMER, JOHN MARTINEZ, Vojtech Mastny, Krzysztof Persak, DANIEL ROZAS,
KATHRYN WEAthersby, Vladislav Zubok.

Photograph: Francois Lochon-Gamma Liason: Warsaw Pact Maneuvers in Poland, March 1981. From left to right: East German Defense Minister Heinz Hoffmann, Polish Premier General Wojciech Jaruzelski, Warsaw Pact Commande in Chief Viktor Kulikov, and Czechoslovak Defense Minister Martin Dzúr.

Editor's Note

This

his issue of the Cold War International History Project Bulletin presents new evidence from the Russian, Eastern European, and Chinese archives on key Soviet "Flashpoints" from Europe to Asia. Documents prepared for or obtained at the November 1997 critical oral history conference "Poland 1980-82: Internal Crisis, International Dimensions," co-sponsored by the National Security Archive, the Cold War International History Project (CWIHP), and the Institute of Political Studies of the Polish Academy of Sciences are a focal point of this issue. Many of the documents and essays in this issue— including the telegrams by CIA source Col. Ryzard Kukliński (obtained and introduced by Mark Kramer) and documents provided by Oldrich Tůma and János Tischler-were initially prepared for this conference. Others, such as the so-called "Anoshkin notebook" and the articles by Jordan Baev and Michael Kubina, were obtained during or after the conference. Given his pivotal role in the 1980/81 Polish crisis and the documents featured in this section, CWIHP asked former Polish Prime Minister General Wojciech Jaruzelski to give his initial reaction to the new materials. The contribution by former U.S. Ambassador to Poland Francis Meehan, eyewitness to the Polish events from the fall of 1980 to the December 1981 imposition of martial law, provides further context to the documents featured in this issue.

The section on "Poland in the Early Cold War"-with contributions by Andrzej Werblan, Andrzej Paczkowski and Krzysztof Persak-continues CWIHP's efforts to document Stalin's role in the formative period of the Cold War. As an initial step in its "Stalin Project,” inaugurated in 1997/98 with workshops in Budapest (October 1997), Beijing (October 1997), and Moscow (March 1998), CWIHP has been seeking to document as comprehensively as possible Stalin's conversations with foreign leaders as well as his exchanges with Molotov and other foreign policy advisors. Future issues of the CWIHP Bulletin will feature additional materials.

In the section on the "Sino-American Opening," Chen Jian and David L. Wilson present new Chinese materials on the Sino-American rapprochement, just as more declassified American documents on the issue are becoming available.' In the coming months, CWIHP will increasingly focus on the international history of the late 1960s and early 1970s as documents from both sides of the Cold War become accessible. The section on the Korean War, featuring translated Russian documents and commentaries by Kathryn Weathersby and Milton Leitenberg on the allegations of U.S. bacteriological warfare during the conflict, carries on CWIHP's efforts to publish newly available East bloc evidence on that first major "hot war" of the Cold War.2 Beyond the biological warfare issue, these documents also shed new light on Sino-Soviet-Korean relations as well as the still murky

history of the "Beria Interregnum" in 1953. CWIHP welcomes a critical analysis of these new findings and encourages the release of additional materials from Russian, Chinese, Korean, and U.S. archives on the issue. Nikita Khrushchev's conversations with East German leader Walter Ulbricht and Polish leader Władysław Gomułka, translated and introduced by Hope Harrison and Douglas Selvage, provide us an opportunity to be a "flyon-the-wall" at key meetings during the 1958-1962 Berlin Crisis. The transcripts not only provide fascinating insights into Moscow's relationship with key allies in a moment of crisis, but also into Khrushchev's personality. Similarly, Raymond Garthoff's translations of Russian documents from the Volkogonov Collection at the Library of Congress continue the debate about the nuclear missile deployments (and Khrushchev's role in them) that sparked the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962.

Vojtech Mastny's presentation of Polish and Czech documents on the Warsaw Pact further develops another aspect of Cold War history-the military history of the "other side." Jointly with the National Security Archive and the Center for Security Studies at the Swiss Federal Institute of Techology Zürich, CWIHP has launched a larger documentation project on the history of the Warsaw Pact. Documents deriving from this project will appear in future CWIHP Bulletins and on the CWIHP website (cwihp.si.edu).

The documents featured in this Bulletin highlight a much larger corpus of documents which have been translated for CWIHP, most of which will be accessible through the CWIHP website. Since September 1998, the CWIHP website database (“Virtual Library") contains more document translations than we have published in print. Beyond documents, the CWIHP website now also provides updates on publications and events. Special website segments with information on archives, literature, and internet links are "under construction."

CWIHP activities and publications have always been a team effort, and this Bulletin is no exception. Too many people have contributed to this production to allow me to name them all, but I would like to express special thanks to Robert Litwak, Nancy Meyers, Karin Mueller, Hope Harrison, Ray Garthoff, Mark Kramer, Chen Jian, Malcolm Byrne, and Jim Hershberg.

Christian F. Ostermann

1 See William Burr, ed., The Kissinger Transcripts: Top Secret Talks with Beijing and Moscow (New York: The New Press, 1999). 2 See Kathryn Weathersby, "New Russian Documents on the Korean War," CWIHP Bulletin 6/7 (Winter 1995/96), pp. 30-84.

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New Evidence on the Polish Crisis 1980-1981

Introduction

3

By Malcolm Byrne

I

n November 1997, an extraordinary multinational gathering took place of personalities who figured in the tumultuous 1980-81 Solidarity crisis. For twoand-a-half days two dozen Poles, Americans, and Russians, one-time allies and adversaries alike, met in the village of Jachranka just outside Warsaw, to revisit the events of that crucial period.

On the Polish Communist Party and government side, former Party leaders Gen. Wojciech Jaruzelski and Stanisław Kania, former Prime Minister Mieczysław Rakowski, and several of their colleagues sat across from ex-Solidarity figures Tadeusz Mazowiecki (later the country's first post-Communist prime minister), Karol Modzelewski, Zbigniew Bujak, and others. Filling out the spaces at the large, square meeting table were representatives of the two superpowers whose involvement in the crisis (albeit in very different forms) ensured its global impact. From the American side: Zbigniew Brzezinski, President Carter's National Security Adviser; Richard Pipes, a senior member of President Reagan's National Security Council (NSC) staff; Gen. William Odom, NSC military aide in 1980 and head of U.S. Army Intelligence in 1981-82; Jan Nowak, formerly of Radio Free Europe and a consultant on Poland to the Carter and Reagan administrations; and Carter NSC staff aide, Stephen Larrabee, were present. From the former Soviet side: Marshal Viktor Kulikov, Commander-inChief of Warsaw Pact forces; Gen. Anatolii Gribkov, Warsaw Pact chief of staff; Central Committee expert Georgi Shakhnazarov; and Valerii Moussatov of the Foreign Ministry.

The conference, "Poland 1980-1982: Internal Crisis, International Dimensions," was one of a series of meetings organized by the National Security Archive in partnership with scholars and institutions in Russia and Eastern Europe-and in close cooperation with the Cold War International History Project-aimed at expanding the historical record and informing the public debate over key crises in the Cold War.' Shouldering most of the responsibility for the Jachranka event were Andrzej Paczkowski, Ryszard Zelichowski, Pawel Machcewicz, Darius Stola, Krzysztof Persak, Ewa Balcerek and their colleagues at the Institute of Political Studies of the Polish Academy of Sciences.

Highlights of the conference were numerous, and have been written about elsewhere.2 The discussions brought out new facts and perspectives on the internal dynamics of the crisis, the roles of Kania and Jaruzelski, the question of whether the Soviets intended to invade,

and the impact of American efforts to forestall such an outcome. One issue that came under intense scrutiny was whether Jaruzelski was a hero or a traitor: did he declare martial law on 13 December 1981, as a patriotic act to prevent the slaughter of tens of thousands of Poles that would surely have followed from a Soviet/Warsaw Pact invasion? Or was he simply doing Moscow's bidding, using the threat (spurious in this view) of an invasion as a pretext and/or justification for martial law, and thus sparing the Soviets the multiple costs of intervention?

As with all Archive/CWIHP conferences, documents played a crucial part. For several years before the Jachranka gathering, directed research had been underway in the archives of the former Soviet bloc and the United States specifically geared toward preparation of a "briefing book" for each of the participants. Over 100 top-level documents were selected, ranging from Soviet and Polish politburo minutes and Warsaw Pact meeting transcripts, to Solidarity National Coordination Commission materials, to U.S. National Security Council records and Defense Intelligence Agency reports. The goal was not only to bolster the public record but also to help jog the memories of participants and keep the discussions as closely anchored to the facts as possible. As often happens, additional materials emerged during the course of the conference itself.*

3

Several new documents dealt with the central, and related, questions of Soviet intentions and Jaruzelski's motivations. They seemed to seriously undermine the former Polish leader's published rationales. For example, a telegram from Col. Ryszard Kuklinski, the CIA's longtime source inside the Polish general staff, reported in early December 1980 that Jaruzelski had ordered his Defense Ministry to approve Kremlin-sponsored plans to allow 18 divisions of Soviet, Czechoslovak and East German troops to enter the country, a revelation that left every Pole privy to the decision "very depressed and crestfallen," Kuklinski reported. A Czechoslovak military document around the same date appeared to confirm this report.

Apparently even more damning to Jaruzelski was a series of handwritten notebook pages prepared in the early 1980s by Soviet Lt. Gen. Viktor Anoshkin, for years an adjutant to Marshal Kulikov and his principal notetaker throughout the Polish crisis. During the planning stages of the conference, the organizers had asked every prospective participant to dig through their own files for documents to bring to the table. Kulikov agreed to ask Anoshkin to bring along his notes. Immediately after the Marshal

referred to those notes during the conference to back up his claim that the Soviets never intended to intervene military in Poland, he and Anoshkin were approached (accosted?) by various participants. Anoshkin eventually agreed to let several pages be copied, which, as Mark Kramer's piece below suggests, appear to show that contrary to Jaruzelski's assertion that he tried to keep Soviet troops out of the country, he actually counted on them to back up Polish forces in case martial law failed.

Revelations of this sort prompted some of the most dramatic interactions of the conference, such as when Jaruzelski confronted Kulikov during a break following the Marshal's denial that Moscow contemplated an invasion. In front of several witnesses, an emotional Jaruzelski said, in Russian: "You know what you said to me then. How could you let them do this to me-in front of the Americans!"

Questions about the crisis persist, of course, even about Jaruzelski. But the truly multinational, cooperative effort by scholars, archivists and others involved in this project has helped to advance our understanding of key aspects of the 1980-81 crisis. The essays that follow below both add to the growing databank and represent some of the first attempts to come to grips with the new evidence. As documentary and oral history work continues, these interpretations will no doubt themselves become grist for further debate.

Archive, 1997).

Many scholars and archivists throughout Eastern Europe, in Russia and the United States contributed materials (and translations), all of which are available as part of the Archive/ CWIHP's Russian and East European Archival Documents Database (READD) in the National Security Archive's reading room in the Gelman Library, Suite 701, 2130 H Str., NW., Washington, DC 20037. The 1980-81 collection includes hundreds of other documents obtained by the Archive through the U.S. Freedom of Information Act and other sources. An early exchange of source materials on the 1980-81 crisis took place at a workshop organized by the Archive/CWIHP and Institute of Political Studies (Warsaw) in the Polish capital in August 1995.

5 Mark Kramer, director of the Harvard Project on Cold War Studies, contributed (and translated) this and two other Kuklinski telegrams, among other materials, for the briefing book.

"In addition to Gen. Anoshkin, other former officials who generously contributed documents were Zbigniew Brzezinski, Valerii Moussatov, and Gen. Jaruzelski.

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Malcolm Byrne is the Deputy Director of the National Security Archive, a non-governmental research institute and repository based at George Washington University.

1 Under the rubric of the "Openness in Russia and Eastern Europe Project," the Archive, along with CWIHP and its other partners, have run conferences on the Prague Spring and the subsequent Soviet-led invasion of Czechoslovakia (Prague, April 1994), the Hungarian revolution (Budapest, September 1996), and the 1953 uprising in East Germany (Potsdam, November 1996). The Archive's principal partners include: the Institute of Political Studies of the Polish Academy of Sciences; the Institute of Contemporary History and the recently-formed Center for Advanced Studies of the Anti-totalitarian Resistance of the Czech Academy of Sciences; the Institute for the History of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution; the Civic Academy Foundation (Bucharest); the Institute of General History of the Russian Academy of Sciences; and "Memorial" (Moscow). Generous support over the years has come mainly from the Open Society Institute, the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, the Smith Richardson Foundation, and the German Marshall Fund of the United States-in addition to local sponsors for each event.

2 For a summary, CWIHP Bulletin readers can refer to Raymond Garthoff's report in Issue 10, pp. 229-232. Other accounts appeared in The New York Times, Los Angeles Times, and International Herald Tribune.

3 Malcolm Byrne, Pawel Machcewicz, Christian Ostermann, eds., Poland 1980-1982 Internal Crisis, International Dimensions. A Compendium of Declassified Documents and Chronology of Events (Washington, DC: National Security

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