5. What action of the Stamp Act Congress was of importance in aiding the growth of the spirit of Union? 6. What caused the organization of Committees of Correspondence? How did these committees promote union? 7. In what way did the First Continental Congress make a definite advance in the development of union among the colonies? 8. What brought about the first real working union among the colonies? 9. What authority was exercised by the Second Continental Congress? What right did it have to exercise such authority? 10. Why was it necessary to provide for a permanent union under a written agreement of some kind? 11. How long were the Articles of Confederation discussed in Congress and the colonies before they were put in operation? 12. What great defect in the Articles of Confederation could not be corrected by revision? 13. What difference of opinion as to the purpose of the Constitutional Convention which met at Philadelphia prevailed among the members? How was this difference of opinion settled? 14. Who were some of the prominent members of the Convention? Which one had been a member of the Albany Congress and also the Continental Congress which framed the Articles of Confederation? 15. (a) The United States IS. After reading this chapter and the Preamble of the Constitution which of the expressions (a) or (b) do you consider politically correct? 16. How did the state constitutions have their beginnings? 17. What changes were made in colonial governments after the beginning of the Revolutionary War? 18. What three colonies adopted the name "commonwealth?" 19. What is the difference between early state constitutions and recent state constitutions? 20. How may the Constitution of the United States be changed? CHAPTER VIII POLITICAL PARTIES Do You Know These Terms? delegate at large, 85. precinct, 85. repeaters, 89. Australian Ballot, 88. straight party ticket, 88. Citizens sometimes make mistakes in voting because they do not understand the meaning of expressions like the accompanying which they find in newspapers. Explain these if you think intelligent voters should understand them. Authority. "Strike three! The batter is out," called the umpire. Then turning toward third base he called out the runner who had attempted to steal from second. Both players walked quietly to the bench. The umpire then called, "Batter up!" Another player stepped to the plate. Everyone obeyed the umpire without question. Not only player but spectators seemed to be under his control for he made them move back when they came too close to the diamond. How did this man get so much authority at the ball game? It came about as follows: This was a match game between the Pleasant Valley and Oak Ridge baseball teams. Each of the teams had organized by electing a captain for the season. The two captains represented their teams in all matters requiring official action. They had arranged the game and agreed upon the umpire. The umpire was thus given complete authority over all partici pating in the game, including captains, players, and everyone connected with it. His authority began when the game was called and ended at its close. After the game was over these players would not have obeyed the man who acted as umpire. He no longer had the right to command. This method of selecting someone for a specific task, giving him authority and rendering obedience and support to him in doing the thing for which he was selected, lies at the foundation of political parties as they exist today. The men who wrote the Constitution of the United States did not contemplate the formation of political parties. The plan of an electoral college for the election of president was deliberately worked out to secure his election without popular political action. However, men at that time were divided into two fairly well defined groups upon the question of the strength or weakness of the central government. Many who believed in a strong central government advocated the ratification of the Constitution. Many who believed that the central government should not be strong opposed ratification. This general division continued after the Constitution was adopted. Those who believed in a strong central government favored liberal construction of the Constitution. This would give officials great power. Those who opposed a strong central government urged strict construction of the Constitution. This would limit the power of government officials. These two groups were known as Federalists and Anti-federalists. Caucus Nominations. Neither Federalists nor Anti-federalists had any general organization as political parties do now. There was no authority to nominate candidates. Men, urged by their friends, announced themselves as candidates for office or were put in nomination by some group who agreed with them on political questions. After a time these friends, who included the most influential politicians from all parts of the country were found in large numbers as members of Congress. These groups in Congress met and nominated candidates for president and vice-president. This was called nomination by caucus. In state legislatures political caucuses nominated candidates for state office. Soon state legislatures began nominating candidates for the presidency. But the power of nominating candidates is too important to be assumed by any small group. The caucus method was discredited and a new method of nominating by conventions was substituted for it. The Nominating Convention. Nominating conventions were first used for choosing state and local candidates. They were usually called through the influence of party newspapers. Nominating conventions were first held by both leading political parties in 1840. Their general use made a strong, permanent, political organization necessary. Like local baseball teams, these early political organizations were purely voluntary; they were not recognized by law at all until within recent years and many of their activities are still extra-legal, that is, not provided for and of course not prohibited by law. Party Organization. Permanent party organization came into existence before the middle of the nineteenth century. The people of small units such as the township, the voting precinct, and the ward in cities, form the basis of the organization. One or more committeemen are selected in each of these units by the qualified voters of the party. All of these committeemen in a unit, such as the county or city, meet and organize by electing a chairman and secretary. This organization is known as the county or city committee. Its officers have a great deal of political power. They call mass or delegate conventions which nominate candidates for county or city offices and select delegates to senatorial, judicial, congressional, and state conventions. These various conventions provide for their permanent committemen. Thus each party has a permanent county, senatorial, judicial, congressional and state committee. A convention in each congressional district nominates two delegates to the national convention and a state convention nominates four delegates at large. The delegates from each state at the national convention select the national committeemen from their state. In that way a permanent national committee is formed. Each committeeman is a permanent official of his party and serves until his successor is elected. The committeeman is the chosen representative of the voters of the party which he represents. He is so considered by the men elected to office by his party and his endorsement has great weight in determining the appointments in his district. All power of party leaders is based upon the idea of representation expressed through the party organization. How the Convention-Committee System Works. Let us see how the plan actually operates. Suppose a presidential election is to be held. Most state and local officials are elected at the same time as the president. The presidential election thus furnishes the best example of the system at work. The national committee meets at some convenient city like Washington or Chicago. This committee decides upon the time and place of holding the national convention and also upon the basis of representation in the convention. This basis. is two delegates for each member of congress. The national chairman issues the official call for the convention. The state congressional, senatorial, judicial and county committees are |