then called together by their respective chairmen. Each committee decides upon a time and place for holding a nominating convention. Usually county conventions are held earlier than the others as the county is the unit generally used for sending delegates to the other conventions.

The county chairman in his call designates a time and place for holding a mass meeting (in some vicinities called a primary). Mass meetings are supposed to be attended by all voters of the party residing in the precinct. The mass meeting elects delegates to the county convention and nominates candidates for township or ward offices. The county convention elects delegates to the state, senatorial, and judicial conventions and makes nominations for county offices. The state convention makes nominations for state offices and elects four delegates at large and four alternates to the national convention. Usually the delegates at the state convention from each congressional district elect the state committeeman. The congressional convention nominates a candidate for congress and elects two delegates and two alternates to the national convention. There are frequent variations from the general plan outlined above. For example, there may be two state conventions called at different times and places-one to nominate candidates for state offices and another to select delegates to the national convention. Whatever variations there are the whole system is a representative one and rests upon the will of the voters expressed in the precinct mass meetings. If all good citizens had been honest, and willing to give a large amount of time to politics and if everyone acted fairly and according to rule, real representative control of party organization would have prevailed, but abuses have grown up which have brought the whole system into disrepute.

Abuses of the Convention-Committee System. There is an immense amount of hard work connected with party organization. Delegates to conventions must pay their own expenses. Committeemen must pay their expenses to meetings of committees. Men who give their time and money to a political organization usually feel that they are entitled to remuneration of some kind. About the time of the development of the nominating convention and party committees, the "spoils system" came into practice in both our state and national politics. Thus there was placed at the disposal of party leaders public offices with which party workers might be paid. The ability to bestow public office increased the power of the political leader. Sometimes instead of being the representative of voters of his district he became "boss." In order to maintain his position the boss frequently resorted to corrupt practices such as, bribing voters, stuffing ballot boxes, organizing his followers and sending contesting delegations when beaten in mass meetings or conventions. These tactics, of course, defeat the will of the majority. Much money was required but since the boss had power he could collect money from corporations expecting favors, or from candidates for office. The control of conventions, nominations and, therefore, officials rested in the party organization. Government was controlled by party organization. Party organization was controlled by the "boss." Representative government had become a farce. "Invisible government" had taken the place of representative government.

Reforms. The chief trouble seemed representative control of party activity. regulate parties or party action. The

to lie in the lack of There was no law to most noticeable evils

grew up in connection with fraudulent ballots, bribery and

intimidation of voters. Many states have recently passed laws to safeguard elections, to provide for the printing of ballots at public expense, and their distribution by public officials, to prohibit corporations from making campaign contributions, to limit the expenditure of candidates, to regulate party organizations, and to prescribe methods of conducting elections. But the "political boss" with his "machine” already in good working order could comply with all these laws or evade them and still control party action.

1. The Direct Primary. As a remedy for improperly controlled conventions the direct primary has been adopted in most states. Instead of voting for a representative who goes to convention and together with other representatives of the voters of other districts nominates candidates, the voter votes direct for the candidates. The direct primary laws usually leave the committees as they were but makes provisions for the election of the precinct committeemen by direct vote. The party machinery has been adapted to the new plan; but the direct primary has failed to produce the results expected. It has failed to bring out the vote. It has proved very expensive to candidates. Many claim that it has not improved the character of our public officials, and that it has failed to destroy the power of the boss. Efforts are being made to remedy the defects of present primary laws.

The great objection to the direct primary holds against all forms of direct government. That is the fact that each voter no matter how intelligent, cannot know all the candidates for all offices in a large district or state. He must, therefore, vote blindly if he votes at all. It is safe to say that whatever progress is made toward good government, or the control of party organization which is the means through which the people gov

ern, must be made by first securing a free, honest, intelligent ballot not only for governmental officials but also for members of the party organization.

2. The Ballot. In the early history of the country voting was done by voice. Ballots prepared, printed and distributed by the party organization gradually came into use. The party worker could easily put a printed ballot into the hands of the voter and see that he voted it. Corruption, bribery and intimidation became worse than before the days of printed ballots. Abuses at polling places became so bad that states passed laws regulating the use of ballots. They thus became official, printed at public expense, distributed by public officials, and their form and use prescribed by law.

3. The Australian Ballot. Many types and forms of ballots have been used, but most states have come to use a form known as the Australian Ballot. In this form the names of all candidates are printed on one large sheet. In the form generally used names of candidates of each political party are printed in one column. This arrangement makes it much easier to vote a straight party ticket. Along with the Australian Ballot came secret voting. Laws require polling places to be equipped with booths. The voter is given his ballot, goes into a booth alone, where he prepares it ready for the ballot box. Party workers are kept a certain distance from the polling place. The number of judges and clerks and their selection are prescribed by law. There is usually an equal number of judges and clerks from each of the two leading parties. Provisions are made for allowing election officials to mark the ballot of any voter who cannot mark his own.

Importance of the Ballot. Democracy or government by the people depends entirely upon an honest vote and a fair count of the votes cast. If there is dishonesty and fraud, if