shows how early tribes built walls along sides of their cities when there was no river or natural embankment. Because of their military origin and purpose nearly all ancient cities had walls around them. You may remember that the Spartans were proud of the fact that their city needed no walls, but this was because they were a very hardy, warlike people always in training and their city was situated in a well protected valley. Sometimes, as in the case of early Rome, several tribes formed a settlement, united for defense only, each being separated from the others, keeping their own customs, names, and tracing blood relationship as among the earlier tribes.

(b) Conquest and Capital Cities. As time passed cities which were most strongly fortified were able to conquer others. After many generations, a few which were not only strong in a military way but also situated where a large population could be supported, became very large. Instead of being tribal chiefs their rulers were kings and emperors. They were capital, that is, head cities, from which control of nearby territory and of remote provinces was extended. For protection and government of vast empires, soldiers and officers were needed; servants and families of these swelled the population of the military city.

2. Trade. Tribal peoples had no money but depended upon individual trade or barter. As all lived much the same life and had similar needs, such exchange of goods was all that became necessary. If one had more berries than he cared for, and another more fish, a trade might result but all might have some berries and some fish. There was not much specialization before cities developed.

It is easy to see that a city could not become large without including many inhabitants who might have neither berries

nor fish, and who might not produce any of the immediate necessities of food, clothing, or shelter. Soldiers had to be clothed and fed, and the materials needed often had to be brought from long distances. Trade and traders thus increased the size of the military city and brought new problems. Strongholds not favorably situated for trade could not compete successfully with those located on rivers, near great mountain passes or on safe harbors. Since the city originally established for protection, had to depend upon trade for subsistence, only those to which great food supplies could be brought became of first importance.

3. Industry. The military stronghold with its trading population acquired raw material which needed to be worked up before it could be used. Spinning, weaving, dyeing, and various ways of preparing food were the occupations of many who were not rulers, fighters, nor traders. There were of course other classes of people in ancient cities, teachers, priests, magicians, entertainers, and practicers of medicine, but the principal original causes of the growth of cities are the three noted: (a) protection, which accounts for soldiers and rulers; (b) trade, necessary to provide subsistence; and (c) industry, which transforms raw materials into products that can be used. These are still the fundamental factors in city growth. In attempting the solution of modern city problems, every proposal must give consideration to these vital elements of life in all cities.

Old World Cities from Which Early Americans Came. If a student of our government could have visited any one of many European cities about the time Columbus discovered America, he could have seen more clearly than is now possible indications of these three causes of city growth. He would also become aware that most of our city problems

which we sometimes think have not been well solved, such as sanitation, had not even been discovered. Many conditions now considered intolerable were accepted as a matter of

course.

1. Protection. As the traveler approached one of these medieval cities he would see a wall, higher than the housetops and many feet thick. This and perhaps the steep approach to the walls or a deep moat suggested protection of those within. The great gate which opened at sunrise and closed at sunset, suggested the same origin, defense against enemies without.

2. Trade. In the center of the city was a market where traders stood in little booths or stalls and sold or exchanged their wares. Instead of newspaper advertising in large type, each trader shouted the excellence of what he had to sell, much as the noisemakers of side-shows now do. The procession of hucksters each morning waiting for the big gate to open suggests trade coming in from the country.

3. Industry. Mills and workshops were found in these cities, though most of the industry was carried on in small establishments and in the homes. Most manufacturing was handwork, for large factories with their great machines had not yet come into use. Manufacturing originally meant making by hand.

Crudeness of Medieval Cities. 1. Filth. What our cities might become if we are not vigilant in solution of our problems may be imagined by looking more closely at one of these old cities. The streets were very narrow-only a few feet wide sometimes; they were exceedingly crooked and equally dirty, since all manner of filth was thrown into them without rule or law. On such state occasions as the visit of a king "clean-up day" was observed, but at their cleanest our dirtiest

streets are much better. In the market there was no food inspection and no sanitary handling of what was offered for sale. The general rule in sale of such things was "let the buyer beware," but neither seller nor buyer knew that dirty streets and unclean food brought disease.

Houses were nearly as dirty as streets; they were usually built of wood, fires were frequent and fire protection inefficient. In the streets there were no lights at night and there was no safety. All houses and many streets were locked up securely at dusk as a protection from thieves and ruffians.

2. Disease. With such houses and streets and, of course, no health department, contagious diseases and plagues were very common and the death-rate high. Walls might defend against external attacks, but they were powerless against the miseries brought about by the inhabitants themselves as the result of carelessness due to ignorance.

3. Unfair Laws. There was no such thing as free trade between cities; some collected customs duties upon everything brought through the gates. Foreigners had more rights than among savage tribes, but there was nothing like democ-. racy or what we should now call justice. The blood tie of tribal days was strong enough to make aliens very uncomfortable at times and to deny them "equal protection of the law." Guilds and other associations of tradesmen made and enforced standards much as modern trade unions do.

City Problems Not Yet Discovered. Though important activities of government seem to be lacking in these old cities, it is evident that they had in their own way solved many governing problems. To us it seems that their greatest trouble lay in not discovering their problems at all. For example, they did not recognize that pure water, clean streets, and sanitary living would prevent diseases which wrought

so much havoc. They could not realize that superstition, intolerance, and riots which all took for granted would be lessened if their city government provided education for all. Ignorance was regarded as in the nature of things. Poverty and vice were not systematically combated. We have discovered city problems which were never dreamed of by citydwellers at the time of Columbus. Perhaps those who live in the future may wonder why we were not aware of other city problems in addition to those which we talk about but often do not solve.

Co-operation and Government in Old Cities. The city which early American colonists knew used various institutions for securing obedience and co-operation. The family was then as always the foundation unit. Tribes had developed additional co-operation which was continued in city governments. All cities were in some measure subject to the government of a kingdom or empire, thus coming into political relation with the world outside its walls. Tradesmen and handworkers had guilds or unions co-operating very powerfully in enforcement of rules relating to production or standardizing of goods. The church brought about co-operation and obedience. Schools were conducted by the church, by guilds, and a few by cities themselves. The colonists adapted the city they knew to American conditions, but the most important changes were those resulting from inventions which applied steam in industry, so that great factories took the place of small shops and household manufacturing. The problems of American cities are largely those of cities everywhere. Our rural and village communities have become strictly American; these and their problems will be treated next.