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Foolish laws are sometimes made because the meaning of words is not understood. Explain the expressions in this list.

Three Branches of Our Government. Laws must be made, interpreted and enforced. The Constitution provides, therefore, for a law-making (legislative), a law-interpreting (judicial), and a law-enforcing (executive), branch of the national government. These are more distinctly separated in the United States than in any other great country. Each in its own sphere is designed to be a check upon the other two. Yet we shall see in this and the next two chapters that the Constitution sets up an organization which is a unit; each branch, in addition to the work which is peculiarly its own, also performs duties which make the other two effective.

Congress Is the Law Making Body. 1. Constitutional and Legal Requirements. "All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives." The Con

stitution prescribes the age and other qualifications of senators and representatives, and their term of office. It authorizes Congress to make rules for their election, though this is left to state legislatures unless Congress acts. The only important regulation now in force as passed by Congress is that representatives must be chosen the first Tuesday after the first Monday of November in even-numbered years. Another law which is much harder to execute requires that districts from which representatives are chosen shall be of approximately equal population and of contiguous territory. In spite of this many districts are "gerrymandered" into very peculiar shapes in order to give the majority party political advantage. In case of doubt as to election or qualification each house determines for itself who is entitled to membership. Congress may also impose penalties for fraud in electing congressmen.

The term of office of representatives is two years; of senators it is six, and approximately one-third are elected each two years, thus making the Senate a continuous body, always having in its membership a large proportion of experienced

men.

Those who made the Constitution found difficulty in agreeing as to the basis of representation in Congress. After much argument, each state was allowed two senators, and each was given representatives in proportion to population. This satisfied the smaller states as well as those having the greatest population.

2. Political Parties Make Both Houses Represent the People. Political parties, you remember, had not been thought of and it was supposed that the lower house would represent the people and the upper house the states. Some were even afraid of too much democracy, fearing that if the House did actually represent the people, it would be radical and unsafe. One of

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the greatest political leaders of the time, Alexander Hamilton, spoke of "the people" as a "great beast" without wisdom. enough to guide itself. Because of political parties through vhich voters express themselves the great difference between the two houses has not appeared. Both senators and representatives are elected by the people whom they represent. Both are directly responsible to those who entrust them with office. 3. Salary and Privileges of Congressmen. The Constitution fixed no limit to the compensation of Congressmen, but public opinion has made itself felt in preventing payment of very large salaries. When the annual amount was raised from $5,000 to $7,500, soon after the close of the Civil War, there was so much protest that the old figure was resumed. The salary is now $7,500 annually, with additions for clerk hire, postage and traveling expenses.

Members of Congress are also guaranteed certain rights necessary to insure protection in their work. They cannot be called in question in any other place for utterances made in Congress. Neither can they be prosecuted for slander or libel on the basis of what has been said in Congress; except for treason, felony or breach of the peace, they cannot be arrested or imprisoned while Congress is in session. In the chapter on representative government it was shown that representatives once had to be protected against the King; some of the safeguards mentioned in this paragraph are needed to protect our representatives against the sovereign people. Under the complex conditions of modern business the speech of a senator might affect the market, causing many to gain or lose money. If congressional speakers could be held responsible it would hardly be safe to make a speech or to introduce a motion.

4. Sessions of Congress. Because representatives are elected biennially "Congresses" are numbered consecutively each two

years beginning with the first which met in 1789. Each session consists of a long term which begins the first Monday in December of odd years and a short term which is held from December of even-numbered years until the fourth of March following. Bills pending at the close of the long term are continued into the short; but at the close of the short term all bills not passed are lost.

In addition to regular terms, the President may call either or both houses in special session. The Senate has thus been called many times to ratify treaties; the House of Representatives has never been called alone.

How Congress Works. The Constitution makes few requirements, leaving Congress largely free to proceed in its own way. In each house a majority is required for a quorum; each house must keep and publish a journal of its proceedings; a yea and nay vote must be taken upon demand of one-fifth of the members present; neither house can adjourn to another place than that in which Congress is sitting, nor for more than three days without consent of the other house. With these few constitutional provisions, both Senate and House have developed long and complicated codes of rules as the result of many years of experience.

How the Senate Works. 1. Officers. The Vice-President is President of the Senate but cannot vote except in case of tie A president pro tempore and other officers are elected accord ing to a strict party vote.

2. Rules. The Senate, unlike the House, has remained a deliberative body, that is questions are debated thoroughly and seriously, occasionally with attention of all members at a time. This is possible because the Senate is a small group and its members elected for long enough terms to make them familiar with rules and customs followed. The greatest freedom of

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