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and it was only after considerable delay that the British representative was permitted to resume his journey. He was then conveyed in a boat to Tungchow, with a banner flying bearing the inscription "Tribute Bearer;" and on arriving at Yuen ming yuen, where the emperor was staying, Lord Amherst was told that Kiaking would receive him forthwith. Hot and tired from his dusty journey, the ambassador expressed himself unprepared to enter the emperor's presence until he had rested and partaken of refreshment. The Chinese would however take no denial, and when Lord Amherst threw himself on a bench in search of repose, the Duke Ho took him by the arm and somewhat roughly sought to lead him away. On this, his victim protested that force alone should compel him to attend the emperor at that moment. The mandarins then left him, and proceeded to the emperor, to whom they gave their version of the affair. A few hours afterwards there came a message to the effect that the emperor had been so incensed at the ambassador's refusal to visit him, that he commanded his immediate departure. Thus Lord Amherst's mission failed to attain anything except a knowledge of the irreconcilable dislike to foreigners entertained by Chinese officials.1

So far from disheartening the British government, the rebuff accorded to Lord Amherst's embassy seemed rather to cause it to make renewed efforts to develop the country's commercial interests in the East. In 1819 the island of Singapore was purchased from the Sultan of Johore as a suitable halfway station between India and China, and the town was founded by Sir Stamford Raffles in the same year. This activity on the part of the British was followed by the French, who proceeded to exploit the southern end of the Indo-Chinese peninsula. In 1828 a French vessel was wrecked off Cochin China, and the crew, who scrambled ashore, were all massacred by the natives. This outrage was made the subject of lengthy negotiations with the Chinese government, which executed a number

1 Narrative of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Peking, by Clarke Abel, 1818.

of natives suspected of having taken part in the massacre. But France refused to be consoled, and, by dint of threats of war, she succeeded in obtaining, what she had long desired, the right to station a consul at Canton. Meanwhile, the United States had evinced her increased interest in the Pacific by a treaty with Russia recognising the right of fishing and navigation in both countries in 1824.

The year 1834 was notable for the fact that the East India Company's Chinese charter expired, and the government decided not to renew it, but to place our trade with China under the care of a British superintendent. The failure of Lord Amherst's embassy had not tended to lessen the hostility displayed by the official classes among the Chinese towards the British traders, and it was realised that the presence of a responsible official on the spot was very desirable in the country's interests. Lord Napier was accordingly nominated British Superintendent in China, and his duties were to protect and foster trade at Canton, to endeavour to obtain markets in other parts of China, and to seek an opportunity of establishing direct communication with the court at Peking.

Lord Napier reached Canton in July, 1834. His announcement of his arrival, sent in a letter to the viceroy, was met with a refusal to hold communication with him, and an order forbidding his entry into the city. On arriving at the English factory at Canton he learned that all intercourse between the Chinese and the English had been prohibited. Nor did Chinese action end here. All natives were withdrawn from the British service, the river was pronounced closed to British ships, and heavy penalties were imposed on those dealing in British goods. Finding himself helpless, Lord Napier withdrew to Macao, where he fell ill and died shortly after.

Captain Elliot was appointed to succeed Lord Napier as British agent, and he found the Chinese masters of the situation. The mandarins refused to recognise his position as superintendent of British trade, and consented to renew dealings with British merchants only on terms exceedingly onerous. After a lengthy series of negotiations Captain

Elliot was permitted to reside at Canton on condition that he should not rank above a supercargo. It was at this juncture that Loo, the viceroy of Kwangtung, died, and Lin Tsisoo was appointed his successor. This man Lin was probably the most pronounced enemy the foreigner in China had yet seen. His antagonism was the more marked against the British, inasmuch as there were more of these than of any other nation in China. His enmity and his rapacity were always on the qui vive, and scarcely a week elapsed from the time of his appointment without some new edict being issued against the English in Canton. On the arrival of Lin, Captain Elliot again withdrew to Macao; and it must be confessed that in the subsequent negotiations in which he became engaged, he showed a timidity and lack of purpose ill according with his duty.

One of Lin's first edicts forbade the importation of opium, which at this period formed the most important item of British trade. To this Captain Elliot replied by issuing a notice warning all British subjects to refrain from the opium trade, notwithstanding the fact that the import of the Indian drug had continued for many years without protest on the part of the Chinese. In January, 1839, Lin improved the occasion by a fresh edict, denouncing the British in opprobrious terms, and ordering that all opium stored in Canton should be surrendered within three days. Captain Elliot advised that this demand should be complied with, and a large number of chests were handed over; but Lin refused to be contented with these, and threatened to attack the foreign settlement forthwith. Thereupon the British superintendent called upon the merchants to surrender all their opium to Lin. Over twenty thousand chests, valued at more than two million sterling, were thus delivered to Captain Elliot, who handed them over to Lin, by whom they were destroyed.

It is unnecessary to follow the development of events which led up to the first Chinese war. Elated at his triumph over the British within his grip, Lin followed one

edict discomforting his victims by another. He finally demanded that sixteen English merchants should be handed over to him, in order that he might punish them for having imported opium into the country. On this, the merchants closed the factory and retired to Macao, while Captain Elliot despatched a report of what had occurred to the British government, with a request for protection.

A British fleet of fifteen men-of-war, four steamers, and twenty-five transports, carrying 4,000 troops, was sent to the Far East, where it arrived in June, 1840, to find that the British merchants, who had been driven out of Macao by the Portuguese, had taken refuge on the rocky island of Hong Kong at the mouth of the Canton river.

A blockade of Canton was immediately declared by Sir Gordon Bremer, in command of the British fleet, and this was followed by the seizure and occupation of the island of Chusan off Ningpo. Lin's reply took the form of a proclamation offering a reward for English heads. The Bogue forts at the mouth of the Canton river were thereupon bombarded.

Still the Chinese continued their offensive attitude, and on the 7th January, 1841, the Bogue forts were taken and occupied by British troops. This achievement appeared to bring the Chinese to their senses. A mandarin of high degree, one Keshen, sued for peace, and offered any terms which might be demanded. The island of Hong Kong was ceded to the British, and the right to hold direct communication with the Peking government promised. Difficulties appeared to be disappearing, and the dispute at an end. British merchants were indeed preparing to return to Canton, when the news arrived that the Emperor Taoukwang refused to endorse the promises made by his commissioner, and that Keshen had been recalled in disgrace; while Eleang, another mandarin, had been appointed to succeed him, and ordered to drive the British out of the country forthwith.

It was at this juncture that Sir Hugh Gough, who had been appointed to the command of the British forces in

TREATY OF NANKING

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China, arrived at Hong Kong. Without loss of time he proceeded to reduce the various forts around Canton, and then hastened to attack the city, which speedily surrendered. Thus were the Chinese taught a lesson; and peace having been declared, the British merchants reentered Canton on the 18th March, 1841.

A fortnight later Captain Elliot was insulted in the streets, and the mob rose, bent on attacking the English, who managed to escape without suffering much damage. The factories were however destroyed, British property burned, and the Chinese remained triumphant once

more.

Sir Hugh Gough hastened back to Canton with all his available forces, and proceeded to bombard the city. But the Chinese realised their position, and offered to pay an indemnity of six million dollars if the British would withdraw. Contrary to the advice of Sir Hugh Gough Captain Elliot closed with this proposal, and a portion of the money was paid; when further disturbances broke out, which continued for another month.

Eventually a peace was patched up and a truce declared, Captain Elliot, whose term of service had expired, left for Europe; and Sir Henry Pottinger, a man of a very different stamp, took his place. He found everywhere signs of the success of the British in their contest with the Chinese. The Bogue forts were destroyed. Amoy and Ningpo had been captured. Most of the more important towns on the Chinese coast line were occupied ; and explorations had been begun inland. The successes attained were followed up without pause. The British fleet entered the Yangtse Kiang in June, 1842. Woosung was taken, Shanghai fell immediately after. Chinkiang was occupied on the 20th July, and Nanking on the 4th August. It was while at the ancient capital that Sir Henry Pottinger received the mandarin Keying, who had been sent as special commissioner from Peking to treat with the foreigners.

After a fortnight's negotiations, the first treaty made between Great Britain and China was signed on board

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