the Cornwallis off Nanking by the representatives of the two countries. The treaty is of importance, inasmuch as it supplies the keynote to the relations which have since existed between China and the Western Powers. It serves as the charter of trade with China, and acknowledges, for the first time in history, the existence of a Western Power on an equality with the Celestial Empire. Its enactments are simple in the extreme, and leave little room for misconception. They are:

1. The conclusion of a lasting peace between China and Great Britain.

2. The payment of an indemnity of $21,000,000 by China to England.

3. The opening of Amoy, Canton, Fuchow, Ningpo, and Shanghai to British trade.

4. The cession of the island of Hong Kong to England.

The signing of the treaty of Nanking marks the first step in the opening up of China to Western intercourse. The process, commenced thus late, has been one of remarkable sluggishness, and it is doubtful whether the attitude of the Chinese official classes of to-day is any more favourable towards the foreigner than it was in the middle of the past century. But while vast portions of the Chinese Empire still remain a sealed book to the Western, the events of 1842 stand out as a border line between the exclusiveness of early ages, and the mere conservatism, due to a false sense of self-interest, of the twentieth century.

CHAPTER III

THE OPENING UP OF CHINA

China after the Treaty of Nanking-Sir John Bowring and Commissioner Yeh-Canton forts seized-Treaty of Tientsin-Sir Hope Grant-The march on Peking-Treaty of Aigun-Treaty of Peking -The opening of the Yangtse Kiang-The Taiping RebellionWestern intercourse-China and Japan-Formosa-Murder of Augustus Margary-Chifu Convention-France and China-The Emperor Kwangsu--China-Japanese War-Events in Korea-The Cassini Convention-Occupation of Kiao Chau-Port Arthur-Wei Hai Wei-Railway schemes-Their prospects-The Emperor's reform decrees-His retirement-Tsi Hsi's coup d'état-The Kowloon extension-The Anglo-Russian agreement.

1 THE treaty of Nanking was intended to serve as the charter of commercial rights in China, and to settle the disputes which had arisen between the mandarins and the British traders, for all time. It was the first diplomatic understanding which China had entered into with an European Power,2 and England accepted it in final settlement of the annoyances which had led to the war of 1839. In doing this she reckoned without her host. The Chinese

1 NOTE.-The summary of Chinese political history, which forms the bulk of this chapter, is founded on the authorities originally consulted by me when writing my China in Decay. They will be found set out to the number of over one hundred in that volume. I have adapted Mr. Boulger's large History of China as the standard in cases where experts differ, deeming that work the most reliable, as it is the most up-to-date on its subject. I have also utilised Mr. M'Gowan's History, Professor Douglas's compact Story of China; the same author's life of Li Hung Chang, Mr. H. E. M. James's Long White Mountain, and many other volumes of equal merit, the more important of which will be found in the notes to the ensuing pages.

The treaties of Nerchinsk and Kiakhta were mere friendly conventions rectifying common frontiers with a neighbouring Power, and in no sense contracts between Eastern and Western nations for purposes of trade.

view of the treaty was in marked contrast to its terms. She had signed it merely to stop the incursions of the British in her realms, and, having attained her aim, she made no attempt to abide by its provisions.

Trouble continued among the people of Canton. In 1846 rioting occurred in the streets. In 1847 a party of English narrowly escaped with their lives, after being attacked at Fatshan. The opening of Canton to Europeans, which had been fixed for April 6th, 1849, was delayed, and the Chinese vowed that they would not tolerate foreigners among them on any terms.

The charge of British interests in China was entrusted to Sir John Bowring, who had considerable experience of Chinese character. He sent home a report on the situation in which he said, "The treaty of Nanking has inflicted a deep wound in the pride, but by no means altered the policy of the Chinese government;" and circumstances soon showed the correctness of his judgment.

In 1854, Sir John Bowring sent a request to Commissioner Yeh, who had become viceroy of Kwangtung, asking for an interview. The mandarin sent an ambiguous reply, and would have nothing to do with the British superintendent of trade. And so Sir John, discomfited, waited the turn of events. Nor had he long to wait. In 1856 occurred the incident of the lorcha Arrow, a vessel owned by a British subject, which, while trading in accordance with treaty rights, was seized by a party of mandarins, and impounded, while the crew were put in prison, and the British factory was destroyed. Remonstrances were sent to the viceroy without result. Yeh refused to discuss the question. There was an impasse, and the matter was serious. Sir Michael Seymour, the admiral on the station, was communicated with, and he entered the river and seized the Bogue forts. Still the viceroy did nothing.

The Canton forts were taken on October 21st. The Chinese fleet was destroyed early in November, and the bombardment of Canton commenced immediately after. Then occurred an interval pending the arrival of troops.

TREATY OF TIENTSIN

37

The outbreak of the Indian Mutiny caused delay in the arrival of the desired force. Eventually, however, in September, 1857, all was ready. Canton was stormed and taken; Yeh captured, and sent to Calcutta; and Lord Elgin, who had been sent to China as special envoy to demand reparation for the damages done to the English at Canton, arrived, and set out to interview the high mandarin at Shanghai. That dignitary, like Yeh, would have nothing to do with the British representative, whereupon Lord Elgin decided to appeal to headquarters, and go and interview the authorities at Peking. In this undertaking he was joined by the French admiral, Baron Gros, who was charged with the protection of French

interests in China.

The combined squadrons reached Tientsin without opposition. There they were met by two high commissioners sent to treat with them by the Emperor Hienfung. After an interview between the parties, the mandarins agreed to the demands made for the right of access to Canton, but they refused to accord permission for the despatch of an ambassador to Peking. A long wrangle ensued, and finally the point was conceded, and a treaty drawn up embodying the points named. This was duly signed by Lord Elgin and the mandarins on the part of England, and Baron Gros on the part of France, and the combined squadrons returned to Canton.

The treaty of Tientsin strengthens that previously arranged at Nanking, and supplies several omissions in the former. It provides for the sending of an ambassador to the court of Peking, and the despatch of a similar representative from China to London. It decrees the freedom of trade with China, the toleration of Christianity, the right of British subjects to travel in all parts of China, the payment by China of a war indemnity, the revision of the existing tariff, and the disuse of the word "barbarian" as applied to foreigners in China. It also authorised the opening of five more treaty ports to foreign trade, Chanchow, Kiungchow, Newchang, Taiwan, and Tangchow, as well as the opening of treaty ports at

Chinkiang, Hankow, and three other places on the Yangtse Kiang, and the cession of the Kowloon promontory opposite Hong Kong. In 1859 Mr. Frederick Bruce was appointed to proceed to Peking for the purpose of exchanging ratifications of the treaty of Tientsin. He arrived at the entrance to the Peiho on June 20th to find the river closed against him by a boom and stakes. On endeavouring to force an entrance his ship was fired upon by the forts, and the fleet withdrew after suffering considerable loss.

In November a fresh expedition sailed from Hong Kong under Sir Hope Grant, with 13,000 men, Baron Gros accompanying him in charge of 6,000 French. Chusan was again occupied without opposition, to serve as a base; and the combined fleets arrived at the Peiho on the 12th August, 1860. The obstructions at the river mouth were successfully forced, and the expedition arrived at Tientsin on the 26th. The attitude of the people was friendly. A high mandarin appeared and proceeded to treat with the invaders. An apology for the attack of the previous year was demanded, and the payment of an indemnity, and the exchange of ratifications of the treaty within the walls of Peking, was insisted on by the English and French leaders. On this the mandarin raised difficulties, and, after wasting some days in fruitless negotiations, the forces marched towards Tungchow, en route for Peking. At Tungchow further negotiations ensued, and more time was lost. A number of British officers were seized and made prisoners by the Chinese, several of whom died under the treatment awarded them.

Finally the Allies pushed on, and on the 12th October they entered Peking. The Emperor fled to his country seat at Jehol, but, though unable to follow him, it was determined to give the Chinese a lesson, and the emperor's summer palace was destroyed, and a compensation of £100,000 demanded for the murder of the prisoners.

The French and English leaders then took up their quarters in the Hall of Ceremonies in Prince Tsai's palace, and the ratifications of the treaty of Tientsin were there