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trade of Japan, and, despite the attempts made by foreign countries to obtain a footing there, nothing was accomplished for close on two hundred years.

In 1780, the Japanese came for the first time into contact with Russia. A Japanese vessel was wrecked on the Siberian coast in the autumn of that year; and the crew, after being rescued by the Russian settlers, were seized by the governor's orders, and sent to Irkutsk, where they were compelled to teach their language to their captors. This incident prompted the Russians to visit the unknown country whence their captives came, and an expedition crossed the gulf of Tartary and visited the island of Saghalin, where they found the Japanese Aino inhabitants ill disposed to hold communication with them. After making several attempts to open up trade with the Japanese, Alexander I., whose attention had been drawn to the circumstances, sent a letter to the Shogun, asking that a commercial treaty might be arranged between the two countries. The letter was borne by an ambassador, who duly arrived at Nagasaki; but after delaying there for several months he returned to Russia without having attained anything. Despite this failure, the Russians did not give up their attempts to arrive at an understanding with their neighbours. In 1806, two Russian vessels visited Kushunkotan, the most important Japanese town in Saghalin, and on the inhabitants exhibiting resentment at the intrusion, the place was attacked, pillaged, and burned; and a number of Japanese and Ainos made prisoners and taken back to Siberia. An inscription was left on the Temple, to the effect that if the Japanese should change their minds and wish to trade with Siberia, they might send a message to Iturup; but if they persisted in refusing to treat with the Russians, the northern parts of Japan would be attacked and ravaged. In the following year the Russians made a descent on the island of Iturup in the Kurile group, which they took without resistance on the part of the natives, who fled. After burning the houses and destroying their contents, they issued a proclamation which was

forwarded to Japan, in which the situation, from the Russian standpoint, was explained.

This document has been preserved. It sets out that the distance between Russia and Japan being very small, the Russian emperor had sent officers across the sea to request that trade might be permitted between the two countries. Instead of arranging a friendly treaty, the Japanese had refused to negotiate; and, as a punishment, the emperor had ordered "that you should be given a specimen of his power as a punishment for refusing his request. If you persist in your conduct, the emperor will take all your northern territory away from you. The Russians can always cross to Saghalin and Iturup to punish you. If you comply with the emperor's wishes, we shall always be good friends with you. If not we will come again with our ships and behave in the same way as we have done before."

In 1811 Russia sent a ship to survey the Kurile islands. The Japanese utilised the opportunity to take their revenge for past affronts, and seized the captain and most of his officers while they were ashore at Kunashiri. These were imprisoned by the Japanese. An account of their treatment was written, on their release two years later, by Captain Golovnin, who bears tribute to the humanity of his gaolers. The seizure of the officers of the Diana served only to strengthen the determination of the Russians to teach the Japanese a lesson. The people on the Siberian coastline were encouraged to emigrate to Saghalin, where a considerable number of Russians took up quarters in the north of the island, which was very sparsely inhabited. Meanwhile the Japanese settlements in the south of the island increased, and the two peoples gradually approached one another as they grew in numbers, and spread each towards the other.

Nor were the Russians the only foreigners who sought to have dealings with the Japanese. In 1837, the United States deemed it time to make a second attempt to penetrate the exclusiveness of the Japanese, A brig, the

COMMODORE PERRY

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Morrison, was entrusted with the task of improving on the achievements attained by the expedition which had failed in 1797; and in 1845, the British ship Saramang sought to renew the relationship arrived at with the Japanese by Captain Saris in 1613. Neither venture succeeded in penetrating the reserve of the Japanese, nor did the attempts made by Captain Cooper in 1845, Commodore Biddle in 1848, or Admiral Cecile later in the same year, prove more effective.

The opening up of China under the treaty of Nanking had served to draw renewed attention to the possibilities of Japan; and the development of California, coincident with the discovery of gold there in 1847, gave an impetus to American trade which resulted in a scheme for the establishment of a line of steamers between San Francisco

and the Chinese treaty ports. The running of these steamers further served to concentrate public attention on the islands of the China seas; and in 1852 the United States government approved the proposal of Commodore Matthew C. Perry for the fitting out of an expedition for the purpose of opening up the country of Japan to the trade of America.

Commodore Perry soon proved his fitness for the task. A good organiser and clear-headed leader of men, he made the necessary preparations with the greatest care, and provided himself with a large supply of goods, as well as models of railways, scientific instruments, and other appliances, likely to prove of interest to the Japanese. He further decided to avoid the southern ports, where Dutch and Portuguese influence was likely to handicap his chances, and made Yedo, the capital, his destination.

The fleet, consisting of four vessels, sailed from Norfolk on the 24th November, 1852, and reached the bay of Yedo on 8th July, 1853. The arrival of the squadron caused great excitement among the Japanese. The preliminaries to the negotiations which ensued were conducted by Commodore Perry with consummate skill. At the very outset he showed that he had a definite object in view, and would brook no opposition. The request that he