should depart to Nagasaki and communicate with the Japanese through the Dutch traders there, as had been done by all previous foreign visitors, was indignantly refused; and after a short delay, the Japanese consented to formally receive the letter which Perry had brought from the President of the United States.

This document, having been duly handed to the Shogun, the American announced his intention of departing, but added that he would return to receive an answer. The squadron sailed on the 17th July, and made a round of visits to Chinese treaty ports, returning to Yedo, where he anchored on the 13th February, 1854. Here his fleet was strengthened by the arrival of other ships, until no fewer than ten vessels flying the American flag lay off the island capital.

The Japanese had utilised the time between Perry's visits to discuss the situation, and a very strong opinion became manifest against opening relations with their visitor. But the display of renewed strength, evident on the return of Commodore Perry, proved more forcible than the prejudices of the Japanese; and after lengthy deliberation, interspersed with banquets and receptions, a treaty was agreed on, and signed on the 31st March,

1854.

The treaty between Japan and the United States, the first between that country and a foreign Power, contained a dozen clauses tending to promote intercourse and trade between the signatories. The provisions made were as follows:

Peace and amity between the two countries. The immediate opening of the port of Shimoda, and that of Hakodate in a year's time. The kind treatment of shipwrecked persons. Americans to be free to go about within the treaty ports. Any privileges granted at any time to any other nation to be allowed to Americans. Consuls to be permitted to reside at Shimoda, and a ratification of the treaty to be exchanged within eighteen months.

The announcement of the conclusion of this treaty with the United States gave rise to a desire on the part of

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other nations for similar facilities. On the 15th October, 1854, Admiral Sir John Stirling, who had gone to Japan for that purpose, signed a treaty with Japan on behalf of Great Britain, at Nagasaki. This treaty contained very similar clauses to those in the American treaty, and opened Nagasaki and Hakodate to British trade. In the following year Admiral Poutiatine signed a similar treaty on behalf of Russia, and early in 1856 another was arranged with the government of Holland; thus placing the intercourse between the Dutch and Japanese on an international footing. Each of these treaties contained the stipulation that the signatory power should be allowed to participate in any rights accorded to other Powers, and thus these four nations became placed on the same footing in regard to their dealings with the Japanese.

The notification of the signing of these treaties was greeted with expressions of marked dissatisfaction by the bulk of the Japanese people, and the expressions of hostility to foreigners became more pronounced than they had ever been before. The Shogun was charged with having sold his country, with having exceeded his powers, and acted as a traitor. It was further pointed out that the Shogun could not pledge the emperor by his negotiations with strangers. And so public feeling became more and more excited, and the storm raged.

The treaty authorised the stationing of an American consul at Shimoda, who might take up his residence there eighteen months from the date of signing. In obedience to this clause, the President of the United States nominated Mr. Townsend Harris to Japan, and he arrived at Shimoda in August, 1856. He was permitted to take up his post without interference, and, by his display of tact and astuteness, became at first tolerated, and later trusted by the government.

Although the Japanese received the first foreigner officially stationed among them with toleration, they had in no wise become reconciled to the new order of things. There was by this time a pretty general feeling among the

masses of aversion to the idea of foreign intercourse; and the feeling of resentment which was excited against the American consul, found vent in maledictions not loud but both deep and general, against the authorities who had made his advent possible.

The treaties already concluded had been restricted to the question of foreign intercourse and opportunities for trade. Neither of them could be regarded as a commercial treaty, and no terms had been laid down for the regulation of trade between Japan and her signatories. The first task set himself by Mr. Harris was the negotiation of the needed commercial treaty; but he found the Shogun's government decidedly averse to plunging any deeper in foreign relations, and it was with considerable difficulty that a subsidiary treaty was arranged in June, 1857, for the purpose of regulating the intercourse between the two countries. Thirteen months later a second treaty was signed at Yedo, which dealt more fully with the questions of imports, shipping, &c., &c., and forms practically the basis on which foreign trade has ever since been conducted in Japan. Similar treaties were concluded with the other Powers, that with Great Britain being signed by Lord Elgin on the 26th August, 1858. The chief clauses of this treaty are as follows:

Peace and friendship between Great Britain and Japan. The appointment of a diplomatic agent and consuls to reside in the treaty ports. The similar appointment of agents and consuls to reside in Great Britain by the Emperor of Japan. The opening of Hakodate, Kanagawa, Nagasaki, Nigata, Hiogo, and Osaka, to British trade and residence. The settlement of questions affecting British subjects to be left to the jurisdiction of the British authorities. The freedom of British subjects to trade at the treaty ports. A tariff of duties payable on the import of foreign goods was attached to the treaty, which was required to be ratified within twelve months of signature.

The signing of these treaties gave the final impetus to the fanatical hatred of the conservative Japanese, who promptly started a campaign against the government which had made itself responsible for the presence of

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the hated Europeans. The movement attracted plenty of sympathisers and spread rapidly. Anti-foreign doctrines were openly discussed, and finally the objectors gave expression to their discontent by falling upon Ii Kamonnokami, the prime minister, who had made himself conspicuous by his foreign sympathies, and murdering him as he was being conveyed to the Shogun's palace. They cut his head off, and, carrying it to the Mito castle, exhibited it to the public gaze on a pike placed outside the main gate.

This outrage served to whet the appetite of the mob. Rioting became frequent. On the 14th January, 1861, Mr. Heusken, secretary to the American Legation, was attacked and mortally wounded while riding home at night from the Russian Legation, a crime for which the American minister obtained an indemnity of ten thousand dollars in compensation to the family of the victim. On the 5th July of the same year, the Tozenji Temple, which had been converted into the British embassy at Yedo, was attacked by a gang of Japanese, who had sworn to be avenged on the accursed foreigner. Some of the Japanese guards were killed, and Mr. Oliphant, the Legation secretary, and Mr. Morrison, the British consul at Nagasaki, severely wounded.

These outrages greatly alarmed the government, who, while sympathising with the foreigners, were powerless to prevent them. A prompt message of regret was sent to Mr. Alcock, the British minister, with expressions of eagerness to prevent the repetition of such acts; but the message concluded with a confession that the authorities could not guarantee any foreign representatives against similar outrages, to which all Europeans in Japan were liable. Punitive measures of a mild description were taken, but, owing to the attitude of the people, it was not deemed safe to adopt strong repressive measures, and the Legations became akin to prisons, out of which it was not deemed safe for the foreign representatives to venture. The situation was a difficult one. The governments of Yedo and Kioto were constantly at loggerheads, and the

F

public discontent continued to increase. It was asked that the opening of the port of Hiogo and the establishment of the foreign concessions at Yedo and Osaka, decreed by the commercial treaties, should be postponed for a further period of five years; and in order to maintain a friendly understanding with the European Powers, a Japanese embassy, the first which had ever left the country, started from Yokohama in January, 1862, on a tour to the United States and Europe. The mission was well received, and attained its object, the postponement of the opening of the treaty ports being agreed to. The visit of the embassy to foreign courts had also a marked result in the evidence it afforded of the intelligence and ability of its members; and it came to be realised that the Japanese were a thoroughly civilised people, who merited the good will, and were qualified to receive the friendship of Western nations. The effect of their travels on the envoys was even more marked. They realised for the first time the wealth and power of other nations, and they recognised the futility of attempting to run counter to them.

A second attack was made on the British embassy, which had in the interim been removed to Yokohama, on the 26th June, 1862. Two of the guards were killed. The leader of the rioters subsequently committed suicide to evade arrest, and the government paid an indemnity of £10,000 to the families of the murdered men.

Despite the conciliating attitude assumed by the Japanese officials, the people remained as anti-foreign as before, and their antipathy was shared, and encouraged, by several of the daimyos, who exercised considerable influence in the interior. In 1862, one, Shimazu Saburo, father of the daimyo of Satsuma, marched at the head of a rabble army to Kyoto, to urge the emperor to take measures for the expulsion of the foreigners, who had been encouraged to settle in the country by the government of Yedo. The Satsuma chieftain was speedily joined by other powerful leaders; and these issued a programme, including, besides the riddance of the Europeans, the abolition of the