Mutsuhito, who still reigns, and has always shown himself a keen sympathiser with, and supporter of, the Europeans within his dominions. The accession of a liberal ruler to the throne of Japan tended to smooth over the factious opposition to foreigners. The appointment of a reforming Shogun served to replace the distrust of foreign influence by a desire for the consolidation of the government, and the progress of Japan. Finally, on the 19th November, 1867, the Shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu, resigned his power into the hands of the emperor, who thus became the sole arbiter of Japan's destinies; and from this date may be said to have come into existence the New Japan.

The first step taken by the emperor after the abolition of the Shogunate was to make a solemn promise to his court that he would as soon as possible establish a popular diet in Japan. This notification was variously received by different parties, and a good deal of high feeling arose over the question of the emperor's entourage, the various clans squabbling with one another for the honour of proximity to the imperial person. Much dispute was also caused by the question of the allocution of the exShogun's duties under the new régime, and a number of the daimyos who considered themselves aggrieved joined forces, with the object of fighting for their privileges.

The disputants came to blows in January, 1868, when the daimyos Owari and Echizen sought under various pretexts to gain possession of the ex-Shogun. This course was prevented by Aizu and Kuwana, two daimyos who desired to preserve the status quo. These having raised a force of 10,000 men, set out with the ex-Shogun for Kioto. Outside the city the advancing host was informed that it would not be allowed to march to the palace, but that the ex-Shogun was at liberty to go there, and would be received. But the daimyos feared foul play, and insisted on forcing their way in, with the result that their advance was resisted by an imperial force of 1,500 men, who, despite their inferiority of numbers, succeeded in defeating the rebels. This incident served to fan the sparks of rebellion into a blaze. The Satsuma daimyos went for

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their opponents whenever found. Collisions were frequent and fierce, and the exertions of the combatants served not only to place the ex-Shogun in prominence as an important factor in the dispute, but caused him to reconsider his position; and, influenced doubtless by the devotion of the conservatives who desired his resignation, and demanded a continuance of his influence, avowed his desire to reassume power as a factor in the government of the country.

Early in February, 1868, the emperor sent a notification to the foreign representatives requesting them to inform their respective governments that henceforth the administration of the country would be conducted by him, and that officers would be appointed to carry out the provisions of the foreign treaties. An invitation was also sent to the diplomatists to attend an audience, to be given by the emperor in the following month.

This last announcement attracted much attention among the Japanese, and, as might have been expected from so radical a departure, was received with ill-disguised disgust by the irreconcilable anti-foreign party. The audience was held on March 23rd. The French and Dutch ministers, who were the first to arrive, were duly received by the emperor with every mark of distinction. Sir Harry Parkes, while on his way to the palace, was attacked by a party of fanatics, who wounded nine of his escort. minister's guards, who were taken by surprise, succeeded in killing one of their assailants and wounding another, but the rest effected their escape. Sir Harry was not wounded, though his belt was cut, but he decided to return to his residence, and not to attend the audience as arranged.

The

The most abject apologies were promptly accorded to the British minister by the emperor and his court. The highest officials at once waited on Sir Harry with expressions of sympathy and sorrow. Another invitation to an audience on the following day was forwarded by the emperor; and the British minister attended and had an interview with the ruler of Japan for the first time.

An edict was then issued warning the people that the treaties had received the approval of the emperor, and that the safeguarding of foreigners was enjoined on all classes; and, further, that any future attack on Europeans would be punished by death and the exposure of the offender's decapitated head, as a token of disgrace.

Meanwhile the ex-Shogun continued his operations. But the issue of the emperor's decrees and the attitude of the loyalists served to shake his self-reliance. And the issue of an edict by the government setting out the line of conduct required of him, served to convince him of the hopelessness of his cause. The conditions offered were that he should retire to Mito and live there in seclusion, that he should give up the vessels and arms in his possession, and that he should relinquish the castle at Vedo. Deeming discretion the better part of valour, the ex-Shogun agreed to these terms, and he withdrew from political life forthwith.

His supporters were, however, not so ready to abandon his cause. They continued to frequent the capital, where on 4th July, 1868, they gave battle to the imperial troops by whom they were defeated, and the officers of the ships which the ex-Shogun contracted to give up, refusing to comply with his undertaking, took their vessels to sea, pursued by the imperial fleet, by which they were finally captured.

A

Early in 1869 a constitution was promulgated in which the government was divided into eight bureaux, with a minister in charge of each. The site of government was moved to Yedo on November 26th, the name of which was changed to Tokyo (eastern capital), and a new "year period" was decreed to begin from January, 1868. startling innovation was also made by the issue of an edict prohibiting Christianity in the country; and it was ordered that all those who would not revert to the established dogma should be arrested. The indignation which this order evoked on the part of the foreign representatives caused it to remain unenforced, and in 1872 it was rescinded.

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In April, 1869, the emperor promulgated five articles of a constitution which decreed the establishment of a deliberative assembly, and the abolition of "the absurd usages of former times." In the same year the first Japanese parliament was established, composed of persons representing the various daimiates. In August a decree was issued abolishing the feudal system. The daimiates ceased to exist, and their revenues were diverted to the imperial treasury. Prefectures were established for the purpose of local administration in 1871.

The refusal of the Korean authorities to supply coal and stores to a Japanese vessel caused an outburst of indignation in Japan, which found vent in the despatch of a punitive expedition in January, 1876. In the result a treaty of friendship was arranged between the two countries, in which Korea was recognised as an independent nation, and the right of mutual trade was conceded. The signing of this treaty was followed by the despatch of a Korean embassy to Japan.

In 1872 the first railway was opened between Yokohama and Tokyo, and the following year saw the adoption of the European calendar. Despite the marked progress, which became evident about this period, the anti-foreign feeling among certain classes of the natives continued to flourish, and the progressive policy of the government had numerous opponents among the more influential conservatives. In 1877 occurred the Saigo rebellion, which, having for its object a return to the ancient policy of Japan, plunged Kagoshima and its neighbourhood in bloodshed for a period of seven months, and only terminated in the death of its leader, who fell in the defence of Shiroyama on September 24th of that

year.

On 14th of May, 1878, Okubo Toshimichi, one of the most able and patriotic statesmen in the service of Japan, was murdered on his way to the emperor's palace, thus affording yet another proof of the antagonism of the conservatives.

It was not until the 11th February, 1889, that the

emperor was able to keep his promise of granting a constitution to his country. On that date was promulgated

enactment conferring the right of constitutional government on the Japanese people, and the emperor took a solemn oath to govern under its limitations. The constitution was ordered to take effect from the beginning of the year 1890 and its enactment passed off without trouble, except in the case of Viscount Mori Arinori, who was known to have taken a prominent part in the preparation of the document, and was assassinated on the day on which it was signed. The first parliamentary election in Japan took place on the 1st of July, 1890, and the house met on the 29th November following. In 1891 the present Tsar, then Tsarevitch, paid a visit to Japan in the course of his journey round Asia, and while there was attacked and wounded by a fanatic at Otsa on the 11th May. The dissolution of the first parliament at the close of the same year was followed by rioting at the ensuing election, and a political crisis occurred in 1893, when the house was prorogued, and the diet closed. The resumption of legislation which succeeded the compromise arranged, was followed by a decision to increase the Japanese navy, which had been already strengthened by a purchase of battleships built in England. A second parliamentary crisis, however, occurred in 1894, and this resulted in a liberal victory at the election. It was just after this event that trouble broke out in Korea, which resulted in the China-Japanese war, the incidents of which are elsewhere narrated. Immediately it became evident that it would be impossible to settle the matters in dispute by peaceful means, a loan of fifty million dollars was raised with ease; and the amount having been considerably over subscribed, hostilities were begun amid the unanimously patriotic approval of the population.

The marked progress which had been attained by Japan during recent years resulted in the establishment of a Japanese party, which imbued, by a patriotic spirit, desired relief from those restrictions in regard to foreign intercourse which had been authorised by successive