Caracas to Guatire, partly with pavement of macadam, as well as the construction and repair of the road from Caracas to Valencia and its important branch road to the plains (Los Llanos) of Venezuela. There are also two large projects, the execution of which has been recently decreed-the great western road of Venezuela, from Caracas to San Cristobal, capital of the State of Tachira, nearly 900 kilometers (560 miles) long, and the great eastern road from Caracas to the center of the region of Guayana, in the southeastern part of the Republic.

TECHNICAL CONDITIONS.

The technical conditions established by the Department of Public Works for the construction of these roads are the following:

(1) The width of the road, including the pavement sidewalk and drain, is generally 6 meters (19.68 feet).

(2) The clear width of the bridges available for traffic is 4.27 meters (14 feet).

(3) The minimum radius of the curves is ordinarily 20 meters (65.6 feet), and only in exceptional cases and to avoid excessive expense for removing earth is the radius reduced to 15 meters (49.2 feet).

(4) The maximum grade is ordinarily 5 per cent, but to overcome serious obstacles or for economic reasons the maximum grade may be increased to 7 per cent over short distances.

(5) The bridges must have sufficient resistance to support an overload of 480 kilos per square meter (98.3 pounds per square foot) and the weight of a 15-ton roller.

(6) The abutments of the bridges are generally of concrete.

(7) The macadamizing is done in accordance with the well-known rules for work of this kind.

COST OF CONSTRUCTION.

The cost of the construction of roads in Venezuela has varied, on account of the different topographical conditions and character of ground. In the mountainous sections the work has been costly, as the following figures show: Central Road of El Tachira-Total cost, 6,848,315 bolivares ($1,321,725); length, 86 kilometers (53.44 miles); cost per kilometer, 79,631 bolivares ($15,369), or $24,734 per mile. Road from Maracay to Ocumare de la Costa-Total cost, 2,361,046 bolivares ($455,682); length, 60 kilometers (37.28 miles); cost per kilometer, 39,351 bolivares ($7,595), or $12,223 per mile.

The remarkable difference to be noted between the two prices per kilometer is due in great part to the fact that the Tachira Road has been constructed to its determined width, with large macadamized stretches, while the road from Maracay to Ocumare de la Costa has, in large measure, only the width necessary to allow the passing of two vehicles. At present this latter road is being widened, in order to complete it.

As regards the cost of the macadam, such as has been laid on the Caracas-Guatire road and on the Central Road of El Tachira, the following data refer to the first-named road. The macadam employed is that called Telford, composed of two layers, the lower one made of coarse stone 0.16 meter (6.3 inches) thick and the upper one

made of crushed stone 0.10 meter (4 inches) thick and afterwards rolled. The cost of 1 square meter (10.76 square feet) of Telford macadam is: Labor-Management and inspection of work, 0.31 bolivar; personnel of the roller, 0.15 bolivar; laborers employed in the construction, 0.37 bolivar; total labor, 0.83 bolivar. MaterialsCoarse stone from river or quarry for lower layer (firm), 1 bolivar; crushed stone for upper layer, 2.39 bolivares; gravel and sand, 0.16 bolivar; flat stones for edging the paved part of road, 0.07 bolivar; coal, lubricants, and sundry expenses, 0.15 bolivar; total materials, 3.77 bolivares. Total cost of 1 square meter of macadam pavement, 4.60 bolivares ($0.89), or $0.75 per square yard.

SEWERAGE SYSTEM FOR CARACAS.

The present drainage of the city of Caracas is very defective, as it was constructed to satisfy only local necessities and without any previously studied, general, uniform plan. There exist several studies made by various Venezuelan engineers. The most complete of these is the plan formulated by the engineer German Jimenez, a description of which follows:

The proposed system is a costly one, as it requires very large cross sections. It is believed to be the most appropriate, however, in view of the topographical and other conditions of the city.

These

The city of Caracas is crossed by three large ravines or deep ditches, known by the names of Caroata, Catuche, and Anauco. ravines, provided with concrete pavements and conveniently covered, would form the principal drains of the sewerage system. After the ravines were covered and filled up to the street level, large avenues, 20 meters (65.6 feet) wide, would be constructed following the course of the ravines; these, it is assumed, would become very important to the traffic across the city. Such avenues would be advantageous to property owners, who could build new houses fronting them and use in this way the ground next to the ravines, which is now generally useless. Therefore the work, besides being important from the standpoint of public health, would materially improve the city and facilitate communication from one part to another.

The second-class drains would be constructed by using the smaller ravines or depressions existing in the city, known as Quebradas de Los Monos, de Los Padrones, de Cienfuegos, de Miraflores, de Punceres, and de Aguima.

The remaining smaller sewers would be built along the streets of the city, as branches of the principal sewers. These secondary sewers are planned to be of the following types: Type No. 1, 0.50 by 0.75 meter (1.64 by 2.46 feet); type No. 2, 0.70 by 1.05 meters (2.30 by 3.44 feet); type No. 3, 0.94 by 1.73 meters (3.08 by 5.67 feet); type No. 4, 1.25 by 1.75 meters (4.10 by 5.75 feet); type No. 5, 1.40 by 1.96 meters (4.59 by 6.43 feet).

All the water from the sewers would flow to a large drain or collector to be constructed on the left margin of the River Guaire, which would carry it to the east of the city to be treated and utilized there for the irrigation of the neighboring fields.

At present the sewers of Caracas take their waters direct to the River Guaire, which during the dry season has scarcely 500 liters (17.65 cubic feet) per second and is consequently insufficient to take care

of the sewer water in an efficient manner.

The infection of the bed

of this river is therefore very frequent during the dry months and is one of the great evils that should be speedily remedied.

The estimate for this project, excluding the work necessary for utilizing the sewer water for agricultural purposes, amounts to approximately 25,000,000 bolivares ($5,000,000). There are also other projects with lower estimated costs on partial or less important work, but the execution of any of these would not supply the necessities of the city from the standpoint of public health.

IMPROVEMENTS IN WATER SUPPLY OF CARACAS.

The city of Caracas derives its water supply to-day from two sources the small one of Catuche, which provides approximately 6 per cent of the total, and the Macarao River, which provides 94 per

cent.

The water from the Catuche supply flows, by means of a canal of masonry work, to the reservoirs located in the northern part of the city. The water from the Macarao River is conducted to the large reservoir located on the hill of the Paseo Independencia in the western part of the city, as follows: First, by a cast-iron pipe line 18 kilometers (11 miles) long and of 0.45 meter (17.71 inches) diameter; second, by an open earth canal 46 kilometers (28.6 miles) long, running along the side of the mountains from the point at which the water is taken from the Macarao River to the reservoir.

The volume of drinking water available in Caracas is: From the Catuche source, 14 liters per second; from the Macarao River by pipe line, 138 liters per second; from the Macarao River by open canal, 90 liters per second; total, 242 liters per second, or 8.54 cubic feet per second. However, it must be taken into account that the real volumes of water from the Catuche and the Macarao Canal are sometimes less than those here indicated, on account of dryness and also on account of the nature of the canal, which is merely excavated in the earth, open and without masonry lining, with the result that filtration and evaporation cause the loss of a considerable quantity of water. Taking into account all these circumstances, it is considered that Caracas has during the dry season only 200 liters (7.06 cubic feet) of water per second, equal to 17,280,000 liters (60,998 cubic feet) per day, which amount, distributed among 80,000 inhabitants, gives 216 liters, or 57 gallons, per day for each person.

The defects and inconveniences of the Caracas waterworks, the correction of which has been begun by the Government, may be expressed in the following three points:

(1) Scarcity of water during the dry season from the Catuche source, the supply for the northern part of the city, which has furnished as little as 8 liters (2.11 gallons) per second.

(2) The loss of water from the Macarao Canal; also its defects from a sanitary standpoint.

(3) The pollution of the Macarao River water by the plantations and people in its neighborhood.

In order to increase the water supply of the northern part of the city, the Government has decided to utilize the water of the Cotiza ravine (Quebrada Cotiza), which descends from the Avila Mountain, situated to the east of the Catuche source, and whose minimum 100538°-17-4

volume is 7 liters (2.47 cubic feet) per second, according to recent investigations. Later on, if necessary, the sources of Anauco and Gamboa, both of which are near by, may be utilized in a similar

manner.

The water from Cotiza is led to the reservoirs in the extreme north of the city through a spiral steel pipe line, 2,100 meters (1.3 miles) long and 18 centimeters (7 inches) in diameter, which was imported from the United States. The cost of this pipe line in La Guaíra was $10,508. The amount of money paid thus far for the laying of it is 112,342 bolivares ($21,682), including the cost of the pipe; the total cost of this work is calculated to be 122,000 bolivares ($23,546). The most important work that is being done in connection with the Caracas waterworks is the improvement of the Macarao Canal, which is now being lined with masonry to maintain the volume of the water available and to better its condition. The work being done is of various kinds:

(a) Siphons. In order to eliminate the large curves at the beginning of the canal several siphons have been constructed, which cross some of the valleys and are formed by asphalted steel pipes, with diameters of 50 to 70 centimeters (19.7 to 27.56 inches). These siphons offer a double advantage; they decrease considerably the total length of the line-a total length of 1,897 meters (1.18 miles) of siphons reduced the length of the waterway 14,555 meters (9 miles)— and they eliminate parts of the canal that offered the greatest difficulties, these being generally close or contiguous to the ravines and ditches that cross the line of the canal.

There are five siphons, all of which are finished, except the smallest one. The lengths and dimensions follow: Siphon Barrancas-Length 370.55 meters (1,215.6 feet); diameter, 0.71 meter (28 inches). Siphon Yaguara-Length, 481.90 meters (1,580.6 feet); diameter, 0.56 meter (22 inches). Siphon Algodonal-Length, 549 meters (1,800.7 feet); diameter, 0.56 meter (22 inches). Siphon MameraLength, 361.42 meters (1,185.5 feet); diameter, 0.51 meter (20 inches). Siphon La Rangela-Length, 134.20 meters (440.2 feet); diameter, 0.61 meter (24 inches). Total length, 1,897.07 meters, (6,222.4 feet, or 1.18 miles).

Taking into consideration the pressure existing in each siphon, the capacity is nearly 600 liters (158.5 gallons) per second, which will be in accordance with the maximum capacity of the canal after recon

struction.

The cost of the pipe for constructing these siphons, free on board at La Guaira, was: Pipes of 0.71 meter diameter, $20.19 per running meter ($6 per linear foot); pipes of 0.61 meter diameter, $18.09 per running meter ($5.50 per linear foot); pipes of 0.56 meter diameter, $14.44 per running meter ($4.40 per linear foot); pipes of 0.51 meter diameter, $13.57 per running meter ($4.14 per linear foot).

(b) Reconstruction of the canal. This work comprises the building of the wall of the canal, also the construction of a cover over the canal for the complete protection of the water, all of reinforced concrete. The technical details of the work are the following: Maximum longitudinal declivity, 0.0008 per foot; cross sectionwidth on top, 0.90 meter (2.95 feet); width at bottom, 0.70 meter (2.30 feet); depth, 0.70 meter (2.30 feet); maximum capacity of water, 600 liters (158.5 gallons) per second.

The length of the canal constructed up to date is 15,346 meters (9.54 miles). There remains to be constructed 15,870 meters (9.86 miles).

The cost per running meter of this canal, all finished, has been as follows: Management, location, etc., 1.60 bolivares ($0.31); making of canals for diverting the water, 1.50 bolivares ($0.29); earth work, 1.70 bolivares ($0.33); masonry,, 6.20 bolivares ($1.19); blacksmith work and storekeeper, 0.40 bolivares ($0.08); transportation of materials and supplies, 1.80 bolivares ($0.35); cubic meter gravel and sand, at 14 bolivares ($1.58 per cubic yard), 7 bolivares ($1.35); 2 bags cement, at 4 bolivares ($3.09 per barrel), 10 bolivares ($1.93); three sheets of No. 27 expanded metal, at 1.70 bolivares ($0.33 per sheet), 5.10 bolivares ($0.98); total cost per running meter, 35.30 bolivares ($6.81), or $2.07 per linear foot.

The probable cost of the canal, exclusive of the siphons, is estimated at 1,105,000 bolivares ($213,265).

To prevent the pollution of the water of the Macarao River, the Government has decided to purchase gradually the properties located at the headwaters of the river. In 1915 and 1916 the Government purchased several of these properties for the purpose of developing the forests in that section.

The following are the amounts paid by the Government thus far for the sections of work mentioned above: (1) For the aqueduct of Cotiza, 112,342 bolivares ($21,682); (2) for the reconstruction of the Macarao Canal, 1,264,781 bolivares ($244,193); (3) for the purchase of the properties at the headwaters of the river, 148,000 bolivares ($28,564); total, 1,525,123 bolivares ($294,439).

After terminating the above work the Government proposes to commence the construction of a filter plant of sufficient capacity to complete in a satisfactory manner the sanitation of the water of the aqueduct of Caracas.

DISTRIBUTION OF CITY WATER.

The distribution of water in Caracas is effected by a system of main pipe lines, with primary and secondary branches for the service of the various sections of the city.

The existing works have a defect that should be corrected. Nearly all the branch pipe lines are of the same diameter, 10 centimeters (3.94 inches). This dimension is, in general, insufficient at the beginning of the branch lines and often too large in the extremes, where often there are a small number of service installations. As a result, the service is very irregular and unequal for most water

consumers.

Another cause of lack of uniformity in the distribution is that houses situated in certain streets receive a much greater volume of water than those in others, because the pipes (all of a common diameter) after having served those streets have to provide other sections of the city, with a consequent loss in supply.

The city possesses five reservoirs for the distribution of water:

The large reservoir on the hill called El Calvario (Paseo Independencia), into which the pipe line and canal coming from Macarao discharge. This reservoir is divided into two compartments, with capacities of 5,394 cubic meters (190,484 cubic feet) and 4,118 cubic