descendants. In a few years another metic class grew up, with all the old disadvantages. Such a class was a constant phenomenon in the ancient city democracies, where political power always rested on descent or adoption except for some wholesale revolutionary incorporations, like the one just described. It is true that now for a while the Athenians did permit intermarriage with aliens, and that the children of such marriages became full citizens, but the older exclusive rule was afterward restored.1

137. The Power of the Assembly was greatly enlarged. Any citizen might now introduce new business directly, and the senate was expected to submit to the Assembly all matters of importance. The Assembly also elected archons and other officers, and tried them. It dealt with foreign affairs, taxa

tion, and even with the details of military campaigns. To be sure, it took time for the Assembly to realize its full power and to learn how to control its various agents, but its rise to supreme authority was now only a matter of natural growth (§ 194).

138. Minor Reforms. The senate was enlarged to five hundred fifty by lot from each of the ten "tribes." The five hundred divided themselves into ten committees of fifty each, and one of these committees was always in session. Ten generals, or strategi, were elected annually from Solon's first three classes, to share the control of military matters with the polemarch. The archons and the Areopagus were not seriously affected.

139. Ostracism.—The most peculiar and original device of Cleisthenes aimed in another way to prevent faction. Solon had thought civil strife inevitable, and had sought only to force all to take sides, so that the bad man might not win through the indifference of the multitude. Cleisthenes tried by ingenious means to head off civil strife altogether. Once

1 Advanced students will find an excellent brief discussion of "citizenship" under the Cleisthenian constitution in Botsford's Athenian Constitution, 198-199.

a year the Assembly was given a chance to vote by ballot (on pieces of pottery, "ostraka"), each one against any man whom he deemed dangerous to the State. If six thousand votes were cast, the man receiving the largest number went into honorable exile for ten years. The plan was abused by politicians to remove, not dangerous men, but personal rivals, and was dropped after about a century. Only three or four cities ever imitated it.1

REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING. - For the overthrow of kingship at Athens, see Aristotle's Constitution of Athens and references at the close of Division V.

For reforms during Solon's time the young student can hardly read widely to advantage. Plutarch's Solon may be used. For advanced students, Gilbert's Constitutional Antiquities, 95-142, is the best modern discussion; Botsford's Athenian Constitution is valuable; Aristotle's is the oldest work. Much valuable matter will be found in the following works: - Oman, chs. xi. xii.; Holm, I. ch. xxvi.; Abbott, I. ch. xiii. ; Curtius, bk. ii. ch. ii.; Grote, III. chs. x. xi.; Greenidge, ch. vi.

For the Peisistratidae, references for the Tyrants at close of Division V. Also Curtius, bk. ii. ch. ii. ; Oman, ch. xii.; Holm, I. ch. xxvii.; Grote, ch. xxx.

For Cleisthenes, Grote, ch. xxxi.; Gilbert, 145–153.

TOPICS.1. Pittacus of Mitylene; comparison with Solon. 2. Pheidon of Argos. 3. Was the Greek tyrant a good or an evil?

SUGGESTION FOR TABULAR REVIEW OF ATHENIAN

CONSTITUTIONS.

Let the class complete the tables on page 128, and make others for the constitution of Cleisthenes. Use the same device later for the constitution at the time of Pericles.

Legislation, it must be understood, is not an ordinary function of government until a late period when society has become highly complex. In the early period, men expect to make new laws, if at all, only through some legislative dictator like Solon. The column for legislation in these tables must be left blank for all early constitutions; in Athens, until the time of Pericles.

1 But see Grote's defense of party use of ostracism in Athens in the next century. Grote's argument is a good subject for a report by a student, in connection with the later Athenian history. Note also Grote's view as to the number of votes required, and see Aristotle for the statement in the text.

EXERCISES QUESTIONS ON THE CONSTITUTIONS. : - For the Eupatrid constitution. 1. What in this constitution represents the monarchic element of Homer's time? 2. What the aristocratic ? 3. What the democratic? 4. Which element has made a decided gain in power? 5. Which has lost most? 6. Which of the three is least important? 7. Which most important? 8. What is the basis of citizenship?

9. What is the basis for the distribution of power among those who are citizens?

For the constitution of Solon.1 -1. What is the basis of citizenship? 2. What is the basis for distribution of power among the citizens? 3. Was the introduction of the senate a gain for the aristocratic or democratic element? 4. What powers did the Assembly gain? 5. Which two of these powers enabled the Assembly to control the administration?

VIII. INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL LIFE.

This brilliant, jostling society, which had just awakened to national consciousness, which had been sowing Hellenic cities broadcast along the Mediterranean shores, and which was now developing political democracy, was marked also by new forms of intellectual activity.

140. Architecture, Painting, and Sculpture, all began to show a Greek character, though none of them yet reached full bloom. The chief centers of such arts in this period were Miletus and Ephesus in Ionia, and Athens under Peisistratus.

-

This

141. Lyric Poetry. In poetry there was a more complete development. Verse is older than prose; and in this age Solon argued his politics, and Thales his philosophy, in verse. section, however, is concerned with that poetry which is more properly literature.

The earlier Greek poetry had been made up of narrative ballads, celebrating wars and heroes, sung by wandering bards and harpers. The form and meter were simple and uniform. The longer and greater of such compositions rose to epic poetry, of which the Iliad and Odyssey were the great examples. Their epoch is called the Epic Age.

1 Students should be able to answer similar questions on the later constitutions of Athens; and it would be a good exercise for the class to make out the questions for themselves.

In contrast, the seventh and sixth centuries are styled the Lyric Age. The prevailing poetry consisted of odes and songs in a great variety of complex meters -expressive of the more varied life of the time. These poems (to be accompanied by the lyre) were descriptive of feelings rather than of outward events. Love and pleasure are the common themes; and, if a story is told at all, it is always in order to appeal to some emotion. The more famous poets of the period are grouped below.

a. Lyric and Elegiac Poets. - Seventh and sixth centuries. From Lesbos: Alcaeus; Arion, patronized by Periander, tyrant of Corinth; Sappho, whom the ancients were wont to designate simply "the poetess," just as they referred to Homer as "the poet"; Terpander. From Ceos: Simonides, whose odes incited to Hellenic patriotism, and who lived over into the next age.

From Teos: Anacreon (§ 131).

From Paros: Archilochus, who wrote war songs.

From Ephesus: Callinus.

From Attica (?): Tyrtaeus, a war poet at Sparta in the Second Messenian War.

From Ionia (?), but living at Sparta: Aleman.

From Sicily: Stesichorus.

From Megara: Theognis, poet of the oligarchs against the people.

From Boeotia: Corinna, a woman; and Pindar, who belongs also to the next age.

Pindar was a Theban noble, and was accounted the greatest Greek lyric poet. Professor Jebb says of him (Primer, 68): "The glory of his song has passed forever from the world, with the sound of the rolling harmonies on which it once was borne, with the splendor of rushing chariots and athletic forms around which it threw its radiance,1 with the whitepillared cities of the Aegean in which it wrought its spell, with the beliefs and joys which it ennobled; but those who love his poetry, and who strive to enter into its high places, can still know that they breathe a pure and bracing air, and can still feel vibrating through a clear, calm sky the strong pulse of an eagle's wings, as he soars with steady eyes against the sun."

b. Other Poets. - Hesiod (eighth century), from Boeotia: poetic history of creation and of the gods (Theogony), and didactic poems on

1 Pindar delighted to celebrate the victors in the Olympic contests.