physical properties; glue bond performance; structural applications; finishing and sealers; plastic overlays and allied products.

Lithographic Technical Foundation, Inc., New York, N.Y.: Chemical, physical, and engineering research for the improvement of materials, methods, and equipment for the lithographic industry. National Canners Association, Washington, D.C.: Chemistry, bacteriology and technology of foods; sterlization processes of acid and nonacid foods; bacterial spoilage; standards for canned foods; sanitation and waste disposal in canning plants.

National Coal Association (Bituminous Coal Research, Inc.), Washington, D.C.:

At the Pittsburgh laboratory: New equipment and processes for the improved utilization of bituminous coal for industrial, railroad, residential and gasification uses; smoke and fly ash control; coal refuse and waste product utilization; coal preparation; properties of coal; coal for chemical, metallurgical, and process uses; engineering economics.

At the Dunkirk, N.Y., laboratory: Coal-burning gas-turbine locomotives; pressurized combustion of pulverized coal at high rates of heat release; controlled feeding of coal under pressure conditions; cleaning hot pressurized combustion gas.

At the Huntington, W.Va. laboratory: New methods and machinery for continuous mining of bituminous coal; materials handling related to coal mining.

National Crushed Stone Association, Washington, D.C.: Aggregates used in concrete, bituminous concrete, ballast, etc.; flexible pavement design.

National Independent Meat Packers Association, Washington, D.C.: Meat foods and pharmaceuticals; fats and oils; shortening and lard; animal feeds; animal and human nutrition.

National Institute of Drycleaning, Washington, D.C.: Detergency in nonaqueous solvents; purification of dry-cleaning solvents; drying of organic solvents from textiles; testing of products sold to the drycleaning industry; methods of handling new fabrics; causes of fabric damage; chemistry of various staining substances.

National Lumber Manufacturers Association (Timber Engineering Co.), Washington, D.C.: All fields of wood, such as physical properties, chemistry, preservation, and commercial utilization of waste products.

National Paint, Varnish & Lacquer Association, Washington, D.C.: Development of testing methods.

National Potato Chip Institute, Cleveland, Ohio: Growing, transporting, storing, and selecting of potatoes best adapted to potato chip processing; improvement of color of potato chips; deterioration of fats and oils at high temperatures; use of antioxidants in delaying rancidity; packaging of chips for longer shelf life.

National Printing Ink Research Institute, Bethlehem, Pa.: General problems of the printing ink industry; standard testing methods; adequate testing instruments; production problems, such as loss due to drying and livering; utilization of new types of raw materials; fundamental studies in printing ink rheology, transfer of fluids and dispersions from one surface to another, and dispersion of pigments in fluids.

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National Sand & Gravel Association, Washington, D.C.: Properties and uses of mineral aggregates, particularly in the construction field; methods of evaluating and improving aggregate performance; properties of concrete and factors affecting quality and methods of improving performance.

Pennsylvania Grade Crude Oil Association, Oil City, Pa.: Recovery of petroleum from depleted reservoirs by water-flooding and air-and gas-drive methods.

Plywood Research Foundation, Tacoma, Wash.: Plywood; wood waste utilization; machine improvement.

Portland Cement Association, Chicago, Ill.: Cement, concrete, and allied materials (in the largest laboratory of any trade or professional association devoted primarily to research).

Quality Bakers of America Cooperative, New York, N. Y.: Control and improvement of ingredients; cooperative experimental work with other research agencies on new developments affecting the baking industry; new bakery products and processes; dough properties.

Structural Clay Products Research Foundation, Geneva, Ill.: Architectural and structural research; industrial engineering; lightweight aggregate research; ceramics; acoustics; fundamental research. Sulphite Pulp Manufacturers Research League, Appleton, Wis.: Lignin and carbohydrate components of spent sulfite liquor; process and produce development work on torula yeast and furfural from sugars; dispersing, adhesive, foaming and soil-stabilization agents from lignosulfonates; methods of eliminating stream pollution, including evaporation and burning of spent sulfite liquor.

Tanners Council, New York, N. Y.: Product improvement, skin and leather chemistry; tanning technology.

Underwriters Laboratories, Chicago, Ill.: This organization is sometimes classified as an association laboratory, because it was formed by the National Board of Underwriters in 1894. However, it is an independent agency, devoted to testing and allied services rather than to research. Its staff of over 600 persons make investigations and tests of electrical and all other devices, materials, and systems which pertain to fire, life and automotive hazards, and also to theft and accident prevention.

Western Pine Association, Portland, Oreg.: Product improvement and new products; increased utilization of woods and mill wastes; byproducts; industrial engineering assistance to member mills.

X. TRADE ASSOCIATION RESEARCH ABROAD

In Europe, the concept of cooperative research by a number of firms in an industry has become well established. In fact, it is a favorite technique for accomplishing both basic and applied research. One who examines the many facets of research in this country and in Europe is struck with the relative emphasis upon cooperative work abroad.

With few exceptions, no Federal funds are given to associations in the United States to start them in the field of technical research, or to assist them in carrying on research already started. This is in sharp contrast to the situation in many other countries. For example, most of the associations in the United Kingdom first engaged in technical research because of offers from the British Government to aid them financially. In many cases the Government agreed to advance 1 pound for every 2 or 3 pounds raised by industry to carry on research in its field.

It has been argued that the lessened pressures of competition, with a stronger reliance on combined effort within European industry, have been important factors. Equally, it has been said that industrial organizations abroad are not so heavily capitalized and, therefore, find it more necessary to finance the costs of research through joint ventures. In the United Kingdom, where these efforts have had their strongest flowering, the Government has provided "seed" money to give groups of firms the incentive to create their own research associations.

It appears that shortly after World War I there was a realization in England that they must augment their industrial research facilities and programs. This appreciation, coupled with the strong support of a leading British statesman, Lord Haldane, markedly contributed to the research association plan with funds provided through the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Over the years this activity has flourished, until there are now 48 research associations in England. It is interesting to note that funds furnished by the British Government have been more than matched by industry's own financing. This is sound evidence of the value of the work to the member firms. Further, it spurs interest in the projects and acceptance of the results.

While research associations or their equivalents are seen in most of the countries of Europe, the pattern varies, depending upon the national economy and the special needs of domestic industry. In Italy, one finds Government domination, but relatively little commercial acceptance as compared with England. In Sweden, ndustry association research is one part of a broad pattern of cooperative activity. Nevertheless, in all countries, leading manufacturing firms carry out their own research in their own laboratories in addition to participating in combined projects. Of course, the results of single company financed work are retained for the individual company's benefit.

It is important to note that cooperative research is normally restricted to problems common to an entire industry. This is natural since it is only on broad problems of concern to a number of companies that one can expect industrywide financial support and application of the findings. The indirect result of this situation is that a cooperative group rarely tackles product research which leads to patents; nor does it look into the most challenging and newest developments facing an industry. Such proposals are normally handled by the individual firms, as they are in this country. Thus, cooperative research at home or abroad is a supplement, a very useful supplement, but in no sense is it a replacement for the firm's own individual effort.

While it is not of major importance at this time, the cooperative research activities of the European Productivity Agency merit attention. EPA, an offshoot of the Organization for European Economic Cooperation, has as one of its committees a multigovernmental group which formulates and administers cooperative research programs. Here they address themselves to research problems of concern to the several countries comprising OEEC. For example, they have an active research program on marine corrosion. Another program relates to exploring the industrial uses of peat. One of their pioneer efforts was work on the low-shaft blast furnace, which promises certain industrial and commercial advantages. In addition to sponsoring research, EPA constitutes a forum for the exchange of research information between the member countries, and thus merits attention as a device for breaking down international barriers.

A recent development in Europe is the creation of affiliates of American research institutes. At this time, four leading United States institutes have in being or under development the creation of European laboratories staffed by Europeans. It is too early to predict how these will fit into the cooperative research pattern in Europe, but it seems fair to say that they will play a part, probably as laboratories accepting contracts from trade associations and like cooperative groups.

To enlarge on the diversity of research association techniques abroad, a few examples will be given. First, is the Shirley Institute in the United Kingdom. This research association was one of the early efforts supported by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Its creation reflected an awareness of the need to modernize the British textile industry.

The steady growth of this organization is reflected in its finances. Starting with an annual expenditure of £4000 in 1920, it rose in 1929 to £51,000, in 1931 to £93,000, and 1955 to £312,000. Some part of this money was derived from public funds through annual grants made by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. It is interesting to note that the industry's own recognition of the value of this research has resulted in an agreement for a statutory levy, which presently contributes the sum of £225,000 to the annual income of the institute.

The control of the Shirley Institute is vested in a council of 50, drawn from all the contributing sections of the industry. Although the institute was set up originally to benefit the firms producing cotton fabrics, it now contains a rayon and a silk research section. This recognizes the importance of these synthetics to the welfare of the textile industry at large.

The Shirley Institute, like most of its parallel organizations in British industry, contains a liaison department with the firms it serves. This branch is staffed by practical men drawn from the industry and further trained in research at the Shirley Institute, who pay regular visits to all members. This provides a direct method of distributing the results to those best fitted to put them to use. These visits run over 4,000 a year. It should be noted that this liaison has double benefits since, in addition to bringing the results of new research to the industry, the liaison officers bring back to the laboratory new problems from industry which require scientific attention.

As earlier stated, cooperative research is normally restricted to the consideration of problems of general interest to the industry. This means that all members are entitled to all the research results at the same time. Nevertheless, it is a fact that there are inventive developments which can be best introduced by a single firm being the first in the field. This precedence furnishes a justification for the risks of promotion and introduction of a new development. Those concerned with the Shirley Institute have recognized this problem and have sought to solve it by the creation of a separate association known as Shirley Developments, Ltd. The sole purpose of this association is to exploit the discoveries and inventions of the institute, primarily for the benefit of the British textile industry. The control of the company is vested in a board of seven directors. Further, the company becomes the prime licensee of all the Shirley patents, with authority to grant sublicenses for manufacture and sale on a royalty basis.

Those concerned with the direction of the Shirley Institute state that the 30 years of continuous experience has built up a mass of scientific knowledge which is being more and more used in the solution of current problems. In other words, the institute is becoming as valuable for its stored and recorded information as for its ability to make new discoveries. This points up the fact that many firms, particularly the smaller ones, may think that they need research when their requirement will be satisfied simply by better access to existing pertinent facts.

In France, the wide variety of problems, the considerable financial outlays, and the scarcity of skilled research workers have also led private firms to pool their efforts in research. In that country there are several such research institutes which serve one branch of industry or one group of firms in a given trade. It is interesting to note that these centers are normally financed by the industry benefited, but they have acquired official recognition by an order of the Ministry of Industry. Like British associations, they maintain a close liaison with industry in order to keep their knowledge of industrial problems up to date and to reveal directly to companies, through conferences, their successful findings.

The revenue for these centers may be derived from subscriptions from the branch of industry concerned, by fees for special services rendered, or by subsidy donations and legacies. In the case of the petroleum industry there is a sales tax, i.e., 8 centimes per liter of petrol. In the iron and steel industry the tax is 84 francs per ton of ordinary steel. These are the primary funding sources for the centers; they provide over 90 percent of the total funds available.

The pattern of cooperative research in the Netherlands does not markedly differ from that earlier and generally described. However,