cert for the purpose of studying and defending their economic, industrial, commercial, and agricultural interests. Syndicates' unions thus formed shall give notice to the authorities of the names of their members, in the same manner as single syndicates file their managers'

Syndicates' unions can not own real estate and can not personally stand in a court. On the other hand, professional syndicates, either of employers or workingmen, have full standing in courts. The distinction is thus clearly drawn between syndicates, which are recognized as civil persons with full rights, and syndicates' unions, which have no collective rights in law beyond the personal rights of their separate members.

Professional syndicates, either of employers or employees, may invest all sums collected from their members as dues. However, they can not acquire more real estate than is required for their meeting rooms, libraries, and schools for professional education. They may, without special authority, under the general law, create special funds for assistance or pensions to their members. They may also establish and manage in full liberty information offices acting as clearing houses for the demand and supply of labor. These offices have become the labor exchanges of this day.

Property acquired in violation of the above legal limitations can not be retained by the syndicate having acquired it; if it was bought, it shall be resold under the order of the courts, and the price obtained shall be paid to the syndicate treasury; if it came through donation, such donation shall be declared void and the property returned to the donator or his heirs. Penalties may in addition be imposed by the courts upon the transgressors; they may be limited to a light fine or may be as severe as dissolution of the guilty syndicate. Similar penalties are enacted for false declaration regarding by-laws or managers.

Any member of a syndicate may withdraw at any time, any bylaw to the contrary notwithstanding, only losing his dues for the current year, but retaining all his rights to mutual assistance or pension in the proportion contributed by him to the corresponding syndicate funds.

Syndicates regularly estab'ished and operated may be consulted by all parties, and even by the State, regarding all and any differences or questions connected with their special line. In the case of differences to be adjudged either by law or by arbitration, the syndicate's opinion shall be open to the inspection of both parties, who shall have the right to examine and copy it.

This law, first enacted for continental France and Corsica, was extended to Algeria and subsequently to the colonies of Martinique, Guadeloupe, Guiana, St. Pierre and Miquelon, Reunion, and New Caledonia, under the condition that no foreign immigrants can be admitted to membership in any syndicate.

Subsequent laws have encouraged syndicates, especially in their organization of pension, assistance, and mutual credit funds, mutual associations of consumers, professional schools, libraries, information and position-getting offices; they have also been urged to collect and publish statistics of salaries. They have been relieved from the stamp tax for all documents to be supplied in filing the required information with the authorities. The maximum limit for deposits with the

national savings fund has been raised for their benefit up to 15,000 francs ($2,895), so as to provide absolutely safe deposit and investment at 2 per cent interest. They are given postal franking for their official correspondence.

STATISTICS OF EMPLOYERS' SYNDICATES.

There were in existence, at the end of 1912, 4,888 employers' syndicates, distributed over the whole French territory, with a total membership of 410,160, of whom 8,379 were women. Unions of manufacturers' syndicates numbered 167, grouping 3,916 syndicates with a total membership of 359,574.

These syndicates were distributed among the various classes of trades or professions, as follows:

As an indication it may be of interest to note that, on the same date, workingmen's syndicates (including industrial and agricultural labor) numbered 11,121, with 2,045,376 members, 232,647 of whom were women. Syndicates' unions (labor) were 124, with a membership of 2,824 syndicates and 431,217 members. It appears, therefore, that labor syndicates show a far greater tendency to retain their isolated individuality and a lesser inclination to cooperate than their employers' unions.

The various institutions, establishments, or offices created and maintained by employers' syndicates, on the date mentioned, are given in the following table:

Help and position obtaining agencies...
Professional libraries.

Mutual assistance funds...

Assistance funds for out-of-work people.

Assistance funds for traveling expenses.

Professional schools and lectures..

Laboratories for analytical and expert tests.

Pension funds...

Mutual credit funds..

Accident insurance societies..

Cooperative societies of consumers (commissariats).

Cooperative societies of production.

Professional competitions and exhibitions.

Experimental grounds...

Various publications, bulletins, newspapers and periodicals, directories...

Total....

426

323

88

10

22

143

68

18

33

28

17

8

4

17

445

1, 650

Besides, 248 similar establishments were supported by a combination of employers' and employees' syndicates, mostly labor agencies, libraries, professional schools, and assistance, pension, and credit funds.

Labor exchanges numbered 141, with 2,409 workingmen's syndicates taking part in their support and operation. The membership of these syndicates was 556,676. They received an annual subvention amounting to 422,815 francs ($81,603) from the cities and Departments where they were located. They received during the year 92,465 applications for work and 67,102 applications for help and procured jobs for 58,529 people.

LEADING EMPLOYERS' SYNDICATES AND SYNDICATES' UNIONS.

The leading unions of employers' syndicates are naturally located in Paris. The following should be particularly mentioned:

1. The Union of Employers' Syndicates for the Metal and Mining Industries, of 7 Rue de Madrid, Paris. The leader and very soul of this union is the Syndicate of French Iron and Steel Works (Syndicat des Forges de France), including all leading ironmasters in France. This may be considered the best example of a syndicates' union, because all member syndicates belong to the same trade, or at least to very closely related branches of the general metal trade. Members, through a special provision of the by-laws, pay dues in proportion to the tonnage they produce; and dues thus collected represent a very important aggregate income, permitting very powerful action both in Parliament and in the press whenever questions come for discussion which are of interest to the industry. (For additional facts, see "History of French organizations," p. 8.)

2. The Union of Employers' Syndicates for Textile Industries, with headquarters at 15 Rue du Louvre, Paris. Its membership consists entirely of spinners and weavers. Its activities aim chiefly at questions of financial law, fiscal matters, and financial conditions. The leading syndicates entering the union are those of Rouen cotton spinners and weavers and Lyon silk manufacturers. (For additional facts, see "History of French organizations.")

3. The Union of Employers' Syndicates for the Building Trades, with headquarters at 3 Rue de Lutece, Paris. The soul of this union is the Syndicate of Paris Head Masons and Masonry Contractors. It publishes a newspaper, Le Parlement et l'Opinion (Parliament and Opinion), edited by members of Parliament, where all questions of interest to the building trades are thoroughly discussed. It has given special attention to labor accident legislation and to all measures and precautions made necessary by the laws recently enacted on the subject. (For additional facts, see "History of French organizations.")

4. The Syndicate of the General Food Trade in France, including itself three groups of syndicates, to wit: The Syndicate of Food Trades of the Seine, the Union of Wholesale Food Trades' Syndicates, and the Committee of Paris Food Trades. It publishes several papers and exerts a strict supervision on the Paris markets and on food transportation throughout the country. Its activities are also aimed at the protection of trade-marks and the prosecution of counterfeiters.

5. The General Association of Dry Goods and Textile Materials Merchants and Manufacturers, including all trades connected with

clothing, shoes, furs, braids, millinery, hats, and wearing apparel generally, also with upholstery and furniture goods. It has headquarters in Paris, with syndicates distributed all over the country. It is particularly active in regard to exhibitions to be held in France or abroad.

6. The General Syndicate of Dealers in Grain, Flour, Oils, Greases, Sugar, and Spirits, with headquarters at the Commercial Exchange of Paris, is a group of all syndicates of merchants and brokers dealing in raw materials sold on future options on the exchange.

Besides these six large unions with headquarters in Paris two others are worth mentioning, with headquarters in Lyon: The Union of Lyon Syndical Chambers and the Alliance of Lyon Syndical Chambers. Both are made up chiefly of syndicates of manufacturers and merchants in the silk and silk goods trades, and their activities are mainly devoted to these branches of industry and commerce.

In addition to these large unions of syndicates, grouping identical or similar industries, there exist a number of other unions or associations of syndicates in diversified lines. Among them the following may be mentioned as the most prominent:

The General Syndicate of Great Industries, also styling itself the Union of French Syndical Chambers, with headquarters at 163 Rue St. Honore, Paris. It has a membership of 153 syndicates with a total of 17,000 members.

The syndical Alliance of Commerce and Industry, with headquarters at 10 Rue de Lancry, Paris. It has a membership of 107 syndicates with 13,000 members.

MEMBERSHIP IN THE CENTRAL COMMITTEE.

The Central Committee of Syndical Chambers, with headquarters at 44 Rue de Rennes, Paris, has a membership of 47 syndicates with 9,183 members. Although not the largest in number, this organization is perhaps the most active of all and accomplishes much useful work. It publishes an annual directory and bulletin of considerable interest, recording the work of its two permanent committees, one on legislation and the other on economic questions. The opinions of these committees have often been sought by the National Assembly in the preparation of economic and labor bills and will be found in parliamentary reports and documents.

Following is a full list of the syndicates in the above central committee. It will be found interesting, inasmuch as it really is a representative collection of leading French, and especially Parisian, industrial interests in a variety of lines, outside of the few large specialties having unions of their own, which have been hereabove mentioned: 1. Bronze Manufacturers' Union; established 1818; 248 members.

2. Professional Syndicate of the Rubber, Gutta-percha, Elastic Fabrics, Oilcloth, and Leather-cloth Trades; established 1865; 120 members.

3. Syndical Chamber of the Ceramic and Glass Trades; established 1868; 238 members.

4. Syndical Chamber of Rag Dealers of France; established 1890; 181 members. 5. General Syndicate of Grease and Fat Trades; established 1886; 84 members. 6. Bicycle and Automobile Syndical Chamber; established 1890; 260 members. 7. General Syndicate of the French Drug Trade; established 1908; 230 members. 8. Syndical Chamber of Army Equipment and Supplies Manufacturers; established 1860; 45 members.

9. Syndical Chamber of the Export Trade; established 1860; 100 members. 10. Syndical Chamber of French Porcelain Manufacturers; established 1890; 48 members.

11. Art Copper and Bronze Founders' Syndical Chamber; established 1870; 35 members.

12. Builders' Supplies Syndical Union; established 1840; 310 members.

13. Professional Syndicate of the Gas Trades; established 1892; 140 members. 14. Syndical Chamber of the Great Chemical Industries; established 1890; 35 members.

15. Syndical Chamber of Watch and Clock Makers and Related Industries; established 1873; 140 members.

16. Central Committee of French Coal Mines; established 1888; 111 members. This is one of the leading and most influential employers' unions, with branches in Lille, Douai, Bethune, Alais, and at other coal operating centers. It has taken an important part in all labor and mining legislation and especially has come forward in realizing many improvements in the coal miners' conditions through suggesting and ordering modern betterments in housing and working methods. It also regulates coal prices, thus opposing any sudden fluctuations detrimental to industry. Insurance and pension funds have been considerably developed throughout the country under its influence.

17. Syndical Chamber of Paris Lithograph Printers; established 1844; 188 members. 18. The Employing Printers' Syndicate; established 1837; 132 members.

19. Professional Syndicate of Electric Trades and Industries; established 1879; 390 members.

20. General Syndicate of the Hotel Industry and the Leading Paris Hotels; established 1871; 180 members.

21. Syndical Chamber of Lamp and Tinware Manufacturers; established 1863; 124 members.

22. The Bookselling Club, a syndicate of Paris and French booksellers; established 1847; 415 members.

23. Syndicate of the Machinists, Mechanical Engineers, Boiler Makers, and Founders of France; established 1839; 450 members.

24. The Metal Syndical Chamber; established 1862; 33 members.

25. The Dry Goods Merchants' Syndical Chamber; established 1873; 110 members. 26. Syndical Chamber of Dealers in Pictures, Curios, and Art Goods; established 1901; 432 members.

27. Paper Makers' and Paper Dealers' Professional Syndicate; established 1894; 151 members.

28. Professional Syndicate of the Union of Paper Makers of France; established 1864; 190 members.

29. The Wholesale Paper Merchants' Syndical Chamber; established 1880; 81 members.

30. The Paper and Paper Transforming Industries' Syndical Chamber; established 1861; 510 members.

31. The French Perfumery Syndicate; established 1890; 75 members.

32. The Petroleum Industry Syndical Chamber; established 1892; 29 members. This is a very strong and influential syndicate, practically controlling the oil trade in France.

33. The Retail Druggists' Syndical Chamber; established 1885; 900 members. 34. The Periodical Press Syndical Chamber; established 1889; 45 members.

35. The Syndical Chamber of the Furniture and Upholstery Trades; established 1860; 368 members.

36. The Directory Publishers' Syndical Chamber; established 1899; 73 members. 37. The Accident Insurance Companies' Syndicate; established 1895; 6 members. Besides its work in legislative matters, this syndicate operates as a risk-distributing and reinsuring office for its members.

38. Syndical Chamber of the Chemical, Paste and Glue, Grease and Fat, Color, Fertilizer, Oil, Petroleum, Essential and Volatile Oil, Pharmaceutical Product, Dyeing Material, and Varnish Trades; established 1860; 437 members.

39. The Pharmaceutical Product Manufacturers' Syndical Chamber; established 1879; 98 members.

40. The Hardware Manufacturers' and Dealers' Syndical Chamber; established 1861; 263 members.

41. The Rock Salt and Igniter Syndicate; established 1911; 30 members.

42. The Stearin and Soap Trades' Syndical Chamber; established 1877; 19 members. 43. The Superphosphate Manufacturers' Professional Syndicate; established 1909; 44 members.

44. The Head Tailors' Syndical Chamber; established 1869; 330 members.

45. Professional Syndicate of Public Works Contractors of France; established 1882; 360 members.