by Horace R. Hobart. Printed by the "Railway Age and Northwestern Reporter," Chicago, 1893; 8vo, pp. 265.

10. The World's Columbian Water Commerce Congress, Chicago, 1893. Edited by William Watson, Secretary. Damrell & Upham, 34 Washington St., Boston, 1894; 8vo, pp. 473. 11. The Building and Loan Association Congress, 1893. Printed by the "Financial Review and American Building Association News," Chicago, 1894; 12mo, pp. 205.

EDUCATION.

12. Proceedings of the World's Congress of Instructors of the Deaf, etc., July 17-24, 1893. Published as a supplement to the "American Annals of the Deaf," Washington, D. C., 1893; 8vo, pp. 300.

13. The World's Congress of the Deaf, July 18-22, 1893. Printed by the National Association of the Deaf; Thomas Francis Fox, Chairman of the Committee on Publication; Chicago, 1894; 8vo, pp. 282.

14. The World's Congress on University Extension. Partial Publication; two leading papers printed in "University Extension," Philadelphia, July, 1893; 8vo, pp. 26.

15. The International Geographic Conference, Chicago, July 27-28, 1893. Printed in Vol. V., "National Geographic Magazine," pp. 97-257. National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C.; 8vo, pp. 160.

16. The Emma Willard Association Reunion, Chicago, 1893. Printed by the Association; Sarah A. Spellman, Secretary, 121 Willow St., Brooklyn, N. Y.; 8vo, pp. 93.

17. The World's Stenographic Congress, 1893. Proceedings printed in the "National Stenographer" for July, August, and September, 1893; Isaac S. Dement, 323 Dearborn St., Chicago; large 8vo, pp. 157. Papers omitted from this publication (total 116) printed in the "Illustrated Phonographic World" for December, 1893, and January and February, 1894; 45 Liberty St., New York; 8vo, pp. 9.

18. Proceedings of the Educational Congresses of the second week (embracing sixteen General Divisions, in charge of the National Educational Association of the United States, and Hon. William T. Harris, U. S. Commissioner of Education.) Published by the Association, New York, 1894; large 8vo, pp. 1005.

19. The Congress of Education at Chicago; by Gabriel Compayré, "Revue Pedagogique," Paris. Translated for the National Bureau of Education, by Dr. William T. Harris, and printed in "Education" for May, 1894. Casson & Palmer, 50 Bromfield St., Boston; 8vo, pp. 7.

20. The Educational Congresses at Chicago in 1893; by N. G. W. Lagerstedt, Stockholm, 1893; 8vo, pp. 20.

ENGINEERING.

21. The International Civil Engineering Congress, 1893. Printed in the Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers; F. Collingwood, Secretary, 127 E. 23d St., New York, 1893; two vols., 8vo, with plates, pp. 1652.

22. The International Mechanical Engineering Congress, 1893. Printed by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers; Prof. F. R. Hutton, Secretary, 12 W. 31st St., New York, 1893; 8vo, with plates, pp. 870.

23. The International Mining Engineering Congress, and the Metallurgical Engineering Congress, 1893. Printed in the Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers; R. W. Raymond, Secretary, 13 Burling Slip, New York, 1894; 8vo, with plates, pp. 1465.

24. The International Military Engineering Congress, 1893. Printed as Senate Ex. Doc. No. 119, Fifty-third Congress, second session; Government Printing Office, Washington, 1894; 8vo, with plates, pp. 973.

25. The International Congress on Marine and Naval Engineering and Naval Architecture, 1893. Edited by G. W. Melville, Engineer in Chief, U. S. Navy, etc. John Wiley & Sons, 53 E. 10th St., New York, 1894; 2 vols., 8vo, with plates, pp. 1331.

26. The International Congress on Engineering Education, 1893. Published by the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education; edited by De Volson Wood, Ira O. Baker, and A. B. Johnston; Washington University, St. Louis, 1894; 8vo, pp. 299.

27. The International Conference on Aëriel Navigation,

1893. Printed by M. N. Forney, editor "American Engineer, " 47 Cedar St., New York, 1894; 8vo, pp. 429.

28. The Literary Product of the International Engineering Congresses of 1893; by E. L. Corthell, M. Am. Soc. C. E., Chairman Committee of Organization, etc. Printed in the Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. XXI., and in separate pamphlet ; 127 E. 23d St., New York, 1895; 8vo, pp. 8. LITERATURE.

29. The World's Philological Congress, 1893. Twenty-three papers printed in the Transactions of the American Philological Association for 1893, Vol. XIV.; Ginn & Co., Boston: 8vo, pp. 205.

;

30. Four papers printed in "Dialect Notes," Part VI.; J. S. Cushing & Co., Boston, 1893; 8vo, pp. 19.

31. Two papers printed in the publications of the Modern Language Association of America, Vol. VIII., No. 3; Vol. IX., No. 2; 8vo, total pp. 284.

32. The World's Historical Congress, 1893. Twenty-six papers printed in the Annual Report of the American Historical Society for 1893; Smithsonian Institution, Washington; Government Printing Office, 1894; 8vo, pp. 499.

MEDICINE.

33. The World's Dental Congress, 1893. First report printed in "Dental Cosmos" for September, 1893. S. S. White Dental Manufacturing Co., Philadelphia; 8vo, pp. 427.

34. Official Report of the World's Columbian Dental Congress. Edited by A. W. Harlan, A.M.M.D., D.D.S., and Louis Ottoby, D.D.S. Knight, Leonard & Co., Chicago, 1894; vols., 8vo, pp. 1068.

35. Transactions of the World's Congress of Homœopathic Physicians and Surgeons, 1893. Published by the American Institute of Homopathy; edited by its General Secretary, Pemberton Dudley, M.D. Printed by Sherman & Co., 7th and Cherry Sts., Philadelphia, 1894; large 8vo, pp. 1109.

36. The World's Congress of Eclectic Physicians and Surgeons, 1893. Printed with the Transactions of the National Eclectic Medical Association of the U. S. for 1893. Chronicle Publishing Co., Orange, N. J., 1894; 8vo, pp. 708.

MORAL AND SOCIAL REFORM.

37. The International Congress of Charities, Correction, and Philanthropy, 1893. The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1894; the Scientific Press, Limited, 428 Strand, London, W. C., 1894; 5 vols., pp. 2148.

38. The Waif-Savers' Congress, 1893. Proceedings printed in the "American Youth," Chicago, October 28, 1893; estimated 8vo, pp. 40.

MUSIC.

39. The Illinois Music Teachers Association in the Musical Congresses of 1893. Published by the Association; H. S. Perkins, Pres., 26 Van Buren St., Chicago, 1895; 12mo, pp. 40.

PUBLIC HEAlth.

40. The World's Public Health Congress of 1893. Printed for the American Public Health Association, by the Republican Press Association, Concord, N. H., 1894; 8vo, pp. 357. RELIGION.

41. The World's Parliament of Religions, Chicago, 1893; by Rev. John Henry Barrows, D.D., Chairman of the General Committee on Religious Congresses; Parliament Publishing Co., Chicago, 1893; 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 1600. (Part IV., comprising the last 220 pages of Vol. II., contains a brief account of the separate Congresses of some of the leading religious denominations.)

42. The World's Columbian Catholic Congress, 1893; J. S. Hyland & Co., Chicago, 1893; large 8vo, pp. 202. Published in connection with a history of the Catholic Educational Exhibit, etc., and an epitome of Catholic Church Progress in the United States; total pp. 713.

43. Judaism at the World's Parliament of Religions, 1893; comprising the papers on Judaism read at the Parliament, at the Jewish Denominational Congress, and at the Jewish Presentation. Published by the Union of American Hebrew Congregations. Robt. Clarke Co., Cincinnati, 1894; 8vo, pp. 418. 44. The Jewish Women's Congress, held at Chicago, September 4-7, 1893. The Jewish Publication Society of America, Philadelphia, 1894; 8vo, pp. 268.

45. The Columbian Congress of the Universalist Church. Papers and addresses at the Congress. Universalist Publishing House, Boston and Chicago, 1894; 12mo, pp. 361.

46. The Congress of the Evangelical Association; a complete edition of the papers presented, Sept. 19-21, 1893. Edited by Rev. G. C. Knobel, M.A., D.D., Secretary of the Committee of Organization, etc. Published by Thomas & Mattill, Cleveland, 1894; large 12mo, pp. 333.

47. Friends' Congress (Liberal), 1893. Friends' Presentation in the Parliament of Religions, and proceedings in their Denominational Congress; ninth month, 19-23. Printed by W. B. Conkey & Co., Chicago; 8vo, pp. 147.

48. Friends' Congress (Orthodox), 1893. Proceedings printed in the "Christian Worker," Vol. XXIII., Nos. 39, 40, 41. Publishing Association of Friends, Central Union Block, Chicago, 1893; estimated 8vo, pp. 50.

49. The New Jerusalem in the World's Religious Congresses of 1893. Edited by Rev. L. P. Mercer; Western New Church Union, Chicago, 1894; small 8vo, pp. 454.

50. The Woman's Branch of the New Jerusalem Church Congress of 1893. "Round Table Talks." Western New Church Union, Chicago, 1895; 12mo, pp. 290.

51. Review of the World's Religious Congresses of the World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893. By Rev. L. P. Mercer, Member General Committee of Organization. Rand, McNally & Co., Chicago, 1893; 12mo, pp. 334.

52. The Methodist Church Congress of 1893. Proceedings printed in the "Northwestern Christian Advocate," October 4, 1893, Chicago; estimated 8vo, pp. 168.

53. The Evangelical Alliance Congress of 1893. Christianity Practically Applied. Discussions of the International Christian Conference, held in Chicago, October 8-14, 1893; edited by Rev. Josiah Strong, D.D., General Sec'y, etc. The Baker & Taylor Co., 5 E. 16th St., New York; 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 1026. 54. The World's Congress of Religions. Edited by Prof. C. M. Stevens, Ph.D., with an Introductional Review by Rev. H. W. Thomas, D.D.; Laird & Lee, Chicago, 1894; 12mo, pp. 363.

55. The World's Congress of Religions; with an Introduction by Rev. Minot G. Savage. Arena Publishing Co., Boston, 1893; 12mo, pp. 428.

56. A Chorus of Faith, as Heard in the Parliament of Religions, with an Introduction by Rev. Jenkin Lloyd Jones, D.D. Unity Publishing Co., Chicago, 1893; 12mo, pp. 333.

57. The World's Congress of Missions, 1893; Missions at Home and Abroad. Papers and Addresses compiled by Rev. E. M. Wherry, D.D., Corresponding Secretary. Partial publication. American Tract Society, 10 E. 23d St., New York, 1895; 12mo, pp. 486.

58. The Woman's Missionary Congress of 1893. Woman in Missions. Papers and Addresses presented at the Woman's Congress on Missions, October, 1893; compiled by Rev. E. M. Wherry, D.D. Partial publication. American Tract Society, 10 E. 23d St., New York, 1894; 12mo, pp. 229.

59. The Young Men's Christian Association Congress of 1893. Proceedings printed in the "Young Men's Era," Vol. XIX., 1176, 1226, 1233, Chicago, 1893; quarto, pp. 15; estimated 8vo, pp. 30.

60. The Free Religious Association Congress, 1893. Proceedings printed with those of the Twenty-sixth Annual Meeting of the Free Religious Association of America, auxiliary to the World's Parliament of Religions. Published by the Free Religious Association, Boston, 1893; 8vo, pp. 102.

61. The Theosophical Congress, held by the Theosophical Society at the Parliament of Religions, American Section Headquarters T. S., 144 Madison Ave., New York, 1893; 8vo, pp. 195.

62. The Christian Science Congress of 1893. Report printed in the "Christian Science Journal" of November, 1893. Christian Science Publishing Co., 62 Boylston St., Boston; 8vo, pp. 34.

63. The World's Congress of Religions; Addresses and Papers delivered before the Parliament, and an Abstract of the Denominational Congresses; edited by J. W. Hanson, D.D.; W. B. Conkey & Co., Chicago, 1894; large 8vo, pp. 1196.

64. Neely's History of the Parliament of Religions and Religious Congresses at the World's Columbian Exposition. Ed

ited by Prof. Walter R. Houghton. F. T. Neely, Chicago, 1893; large 8vo, pp. 1001.

65. The Congress of Religions at Chicago in 1893; by G. Bonet-Maury, Professor of the Faculty of Protestant Theology of Paris; 79 Boulevard Saint-Germain, Paris, 1895; with 14 portraits, 12mo, pp. 346.

66. The Catholic Congress and the World's Religious Congresses at Chicago in 1893; by Michal Zmigrodzki, Krakow, Austria; Polish; 8vo, pp. 86.

Separate Papers Published.— Many papers read at the Religious Congresses have been separately published, but only a few of them can be included here:

67. The Reunion of Christendom; a paper for the Parliament of Religions, by Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D.; Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1893; 8vo, pp. 45.

68. An Exposition of Confucianism; prepared for the Parliament of Religions by Pung Kwang Yu, Secretary to the Imperial Chinese Legation at Washington, and Delegate to the World's Congress Auxiliary; printed by David Oliphant, Chicago, 1893; 8vo, pp. 50.

69. Outlines of the Doctrines of the Nichiren Sect, by Nissatsu Arai; with the life of Nichiren, founder of the Sect. Printed for the Nichiren Sect, Tokyo, Japan, 1893; 8vo, pp. 18. 70. Unity and Ethics and Harmony in Religions; based on the Old and New Testaments and the Koran, by Christophore Jibara, Archimandrite of the Apostolic and Patriarchal Throne of the Orthodox Church in Syria, etc. Translated from the Arabic by Anthon F. Habdad, B.A., President College of Beirut; together with a letter addressed to the World's Congress of Religions. Acton Publishing Co., New York, 1893; 8vo, pp. 57.

71. The Divine Wisdom of the Indian Rishis; or the Essence of the Hidden Vedic Truths and Yoga Philosophy. Originally written for the World's Religious Parliament, by Swami Shivgan Chand; Oriental Press, Lahore, India, 1894; 8vo, pp. 96.

Noteworthy Articles in Periodicals.-Among the many noteworthy magazine and kindred articles in relation to the Parliament of Religions, it is thought the following should appear in this Bibliography:

72. The Congress of Religions in Chicago, by Prince Serge Wolkonsky. The "European Messenger," St. Petersburg, Russia, March, 1895; 8vo, pp. 25.

73. The Real Significance of the World's Parliament of Religions, by Prof. F. Max Müller; "The Arena," December, 1894; 8vo, pp. 14.

74. Results of the Parliament of Religions, by Rev. John Henry Barrows, D.D., Chairman of the Parliament; "The Forum," September, 1894; large Svo, pp. 14.

75. The Parliament of Religions in America, by Emilio Castelar, formerly President of the Spanish Republic. "The Independent," New York, May 31, 1894; folio, pp. 3.

76. The Parliament of Religions, by Rev. George Dana Boardman, D.D., LL.D.; "The Independent," New York, Dec. 27, 1894; Jan. 10, 1895; folio, pp. 10.

77. The Congress of Religions, by George Washburn, D.D., President of Robert College, Constantinople, Turkey. "The Independent," New York, Jan. 24, 1895; folio, pp. 2.

78. The Parliament of Religions, by Rev. Henry H. Jessup, D.D., of Beirut, Syria; The Outcome of the Parliament of Religions, by Prof. George E. Post, of Beirut, Syria; Christianity in the Parliament of Religions, by Rev. James S. Dennis. The Evangelist," New York, Feb., 7, 1895; folio, pp. 5. 79. The World's Religious Congresses of 1893, by Rev. Simeon Gilbert, D.D., and Prof. F. Max Müller; Review of the Churches," Nov. 1893, New York; 8vo, pp. 9. 80. The Genesis of the Religious Congresses of 1893, by the President of the World's Congress Auxiliary. New Church Review," January, 1894; New Church Union," Boston; 8vo, pp. 28.

66

66

81. The World's Parliament of Religions, by the President of the World's Congresses of 1893; and the World's Religious Parliament Extension, by Paul Carus, Ph.D.; "The Monist," April, 1895. Open Court Publishing Co., Chicago; 8vo, pp. 33.

SCIENCE AND PHILOSOPHY.

82. The World's Congress on Astronomy and Astro-Physics, 1893; Twenty-one papers published in "Astronomy and AstroPhysics" for October, November, and December, '93; and January, February, and March, '94. Carleton College, Northfield, Minn.; Wesley & Co., 28 Essex St., Strand, London; large 8vo, pp. 97.

83. Memoirs of the International Congress of Anthropology, 1893. Edited by C. Staniland Wake. Schulte Publishing Co., Chicago, 1894; 8vo, pp. 375.

84. The World's Congress on Chemistry, 1893; Proceedings printed in the Journal of the American Chemical Society, commencing in No. 6 of Vol. XV., and extending into Vol. XVI. Edited by Edward Hart, J. H. Long, and Edgar F. Smith. Chemical Publishing Co., Easton, Pa.; 8vo, pp. 420.

85. The International Meteorological Congress. Published by authority of the Secretary of Agriculture, Weather Bureau, Washington, D. C., 1894-95; Parts I. and II.; 8vo, pp. 583. (Publication not completed.)

86. Procedings of the International Electrical Congress, Chicago, August 21-25, '93. Published by the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, 12 W. 31st St., New York, 1894; 8vo, pp. 489.

87. The World's Psychical Science Congress, 1893. Forty papers printed in "Religo-Philosophical Journal," Chicago, August 26, '93, to October 13, '94; estimated 8vo, pp. 540.

SUNDAY-REST.

88. The Sunday problem; its Present Aspects, Physiological, Industrial, Social, Political, and Religious. Papers presented at the International Congress on Sunday-Rest, Chicago, Sept. 28-30, 1893. James H. Earl, 178 Washington St., Boston, 1894; 12mo, pp. 338.

TEMPERANCE.

89. The World's Temperance Congresses of 1893. Edited by J. N. Stearns. National Temperance Publishing House, 58 Reade St., New York, '93; two vols., 8vo, pp. 1029.

90. The World's Woman's Christian Temperance Union Congress, October, 1893. The Temple, Chicago, 1894; 8vo, pp. 302.

91. The World's Vegetarian Congress of 1893. Edited by Charles W. Forward. Printed in the "Hygenic Review" for October, '93. Memorial Hall, Farrington St., London, E. C.; large 8vo, pp. 222.

WOMAN'S PROGRESS.

92. The World's Congress of Representative Women. Edited by May Wright Sewall, Chairman Committee of Organization. Rand, McNally & Co., Chicago, 1894; 2 vols., pp. 958.

GENERAL PUBLICATIONS.

(Publications relating to the Congresses in general.) 93. Report of Marquis Louis de Chasseloup-Laubat, Civil Engineer, Special Commissioner to the World's Congresses of 1893, etc., under the direction of M. Camille Krantz, Commissioner General of the French Republic to the World's Columbian Exposition; to the Minister of Commerce and Industry, etc. Paris, National Chambers, 1894; 4to, pp. 400. 94. Report of the British Royal Commission on the Chicago Exhibition of 1893, by Sir Richard E. Webster, G.C.M.G., Q.C., M.P., Chairman, and Sir Henry Trueman Wood, M.A., Secretary. Including a brief account of the World's Congresses in general, and of the Electrical Congress in particular, with a list of the British representatives in the Congresses. Printed in the "Journal of the Society of Arts" for May, '94, London; large 8vo, double column, pp. 65.

95. Review of the Congresses held under the World's Congress Auxiliary of the World's Columbian Exposition, at Chicago, in 1893; by Michael Zmigrodzki; Krakow, Austria, 1895; Polish, 8vo, pp. 105.

96. The World's Congress Auxiliary and the Congresses held under its auspices. The "Book of the Fair"; Bancroft Co., Chicago; Chap. V., Part II., pp. 69–77; Chap. VI., Part III., pp. 97-98; Chap. XXVI., Part XXIV., pp. 921-955; total folio, pp. 43-8vo, pp. 172.

97. The World's Congress Auxiliary and the World's Congresses of 1893; "The Dial," Chicago, December, 1892, July, August, September, and November, '93.

IN COURSE OF PUBLICATION.

98. Musical Congresses. Proceedings of the National Music Teachers Association; Prof. H. S. Perkins, 26 Van Buren St., Chicago.

99. Religion. Congress of the Reformed Church in the United States; Rev. Ambrose Schmidt, 216 Shady Ave., Pittsburg, Pa.

100. Science. Mathematical Congress; in press for the American Mathematical Society; Macmillan & Co., New York. 101. Literature. The Librarians Congress of 1893; F. A. Hild, Chairman Committee of Organization, Chicago Public Library.

102. Medicine. The Pharmaceutical Congress of 1893; Prof. Oscar Oldberg, Editor, 2425 Dearborn St., Chicago.

Among the Congresses whose proceedings are still unpublished are those on the Public Press, MedicoClimatology, Medical Jurisprudence, Social Purity, Humane Societies, Insurance, Authors, Ceramic Art, Decorative Art, Painting and Sculpture, Civil Service Reform, City Government, Jurisprudence and Law Reform, Patents and Trade Marks, Suffrage, Proportional Representation, Africa, Geology, Zoology, Evolution, Social and Economic Science, Profit Sharing, Weights and Measures, Single Tax, Labor, Farm Culture, Bird Culture, Good Roads, Farm Life and Mental Culture, General Education, College and University Students, Manual and Art Education, Kindergarten Education, Representative Youth, University Extension, Education of the Blind, Chautauqua Education, College Fraternities, Social Settlements, Higher Education, Colored Educators. These Educational Congresses were all of the first series; the proceedings of the second series are fully published in the volume hereinbefore noted. The proceedings of many of the Religious Congresses are also still unpublished.

The preliminary publications of the World's Congress Auxiliary, consisting of Announcements by the President and Preliminary Addresses by the Committees of Organization, make a volume of 1388 octavo pages; and the World's Congress Programmes, prepared and printed for the several Congresses, make a volume of 1002 octavo pages. Most of these Preliminary Publications and Programmes are now out of print.

These special publications relating to the various Congresses have tended rather to increase than to satisfy the demand for a general and complete publication of the proceedings. Those who took part in a Congress in one of the departments naturally have a desire to know what was accomplished in the other Congresses, not only of their own department, but also of the whole great series which opened on May 15 and closed on October 28 of the Columbian year.

For the most part, the publications which have thus far appeared represent the self-sacrificing zeal of interested societies. In many cases, the editions are limited to the needs of the members, leaving none to supply the general public. In some cases, as the list shows, the publications are not in suitable form for international use. Hence, while enough has been done to secure the historic perpetuity of the immense work accomplished in the World's Congresses of 1893, the need still remains for an appropriate Governmental edition of the proceedings of the various Congresses for distribution among the governments, colleges, universities, and leading public libraries of the countries which participated in the World's Columbian Exposition. This is required alike by the general welfare of the American people and the just obligations of international courtesy. CHARLES C. BONNEY.

President of the World's Congresses.

The New Books.

THE LAW AND LOGIC OF RECON-
STRUCTION.*

In the preface to his work on "Reconstruction during the Civil War," Mr. Scott informs his readers that he intends to write the political history of the period of Reconstruction, and that the present work is merely preliminary to that undertaking. It will be found an exceedingly suggestive and stimulating contribution to the study of American politics. In dealing with the colonies prior to the Revolution, the author shows how constantly they kept in view the idea of their absolute separateness and equality, and with what tenacity they clung to the principle of local self-government. These ideas continued to dominate them during the period of the Stamp Act and that which followed, covering the Congresses of 1774 and 1775. Prior to 1776, the idea of a union of the colonies found no favor whatever; and when the course of the mother country finally compelled them to consider the question of their common defense, the policy of surrendering their separateness and sovereignty in any degree to the necessity of union was accepted with manifest hesitation and reluctance. Mr. Scott shows the strength and persistency of this feeling in dealing with the Articles of Confederation, the Ordinance of 1787, the formation of the Constitution, and the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions of 1798-9; and it now seems an accident that the Constitution was ever ratified. When adopted, it was everywhere understood to be a compact; and this word was not introduced by Calhoun at a later period, as asserted by Mr. Webster, but, like the term "confederacy," was a part of the current speech of the

time.

"One cannot read the writings of the days which followed the adoption of the Constitution," says Mr. Scott," and fail to see that secession from the Union, or rather the withdrawal and resumption of the states, of the delegated powers, was the remedy in contemplation of the generation which made the Constitution; that it was regarded as the logical and natural remedy, and as the only remedy." If the Constitution had been construed by the people as the creation of an indissoluble union, its ratification would have been impossible; and it is not surprising that from the beginning of

* RECONSTRUCTION DURING THE CIVIL WAR IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. By Eben Greenough Scott. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

the government to the year 1861 threats of disunion, sometimes in the North and sometimes in the South, were not unfrequently heard, and that at no time during this period was the public mind free from apprehension on the subject.

In dealing with the relation of the states to the general government, Mr. Scott devotes several chapters to the formation of parties and the strife between the Federalists and Republicans which resulted in the triumph of Jefferson. These chapters are particularly instructive and interesting; but the growth of the idea of union kept pace with that of state sovereignty. This is shown in his discussion of the Missouri Compromise of 1820, and in the great speech of Webster in reply to Hayne in 1830, which voiced the growing sentiment of union and gave it a fresh impulse by his masterly and eloquent presentation of the subject. In his inaugural address of 1861, anticipating the triumph of our arms, Mr. Lincoln declared that "no state, upon its own mere motion, can lawfully get out of the union; that resolves and ordinances to that effect are legally void; and that acts of violence, within any state or states, against the authority of the United States, are insurrectionary or revolutionary, according to circumstances." Mr. Scott quotes these words, and the resolution of July 22, 1861, that "this war is not waged in any spirit of oppression, or for any purpose of conquest or subjugation, or purpose of overthrowing or interfering with the rights or established institutions of those states, but to defend and maintain the supremacy of the Constitution, and to preserve the union with all the dignity, equality, and rights of the several states unimpaired; and that as soon as these objects are accomplished the war ought

to cease.

The Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, showed the irresistible march of events, and how completely the President yielded to the popular demand respecting the abolition of slavery. On the 8th of December following he issued his proclamation of amnesty, providing a plan of reconstruction by which any seceded state might be restored to its place in the Union through the action of one-tenth of its voters, as shown by the presidential election of 1860. This became known as the presidential plan of reconstruction, which Mr. Lincoln never relinquished, and which was afterwards followed by President Johnson. Mr. Scott gives an admirable sketch of the debates on this plan; on the bill that followed, which passed both Houses and embodied the congressional plan of reconstruction; and on the refusal of

the President to sign the bill, and the vigorous and incisive protest of Senator Wade and Henry Winter Davis against his action. These debates are now matters of history; but they awakened among the people at the time the most profound interest and solicitude, because they were understood to involve the vital issues of the war. That wide differences of opinion prevailed on the question of reconstruction was by no means surprising. It was a new question. Such a blending of the principle of local self-government and national union as was embodied in the Constitution of the United States had never been known. When its complicated mechanism was suddenly disrupted by an unexpected catastrophe, the minds of men were necessarily bewildered in dealing with the work of its restoration. It seemed as difficult as had been its formation, and a precedent for action was alike wanting in either case. But the question had to be met, and it demanded a solution in the midst of a terrific struggle involving the life of the nation.

Three distinct plans of reconstruction were submitted to Congress, the first of which was inaugurated by Lincoln and championed by him with zeal and pertinacity while he lived. Mr. Scott correctly says of it:

"It could not have had its origin in any provision of the Constitution, for a new government was to be imposed upon the state and not created by the people of the state; it was not therefore a popular government: it was to be created, ostensibly, by a small fraction of the people, one-tenth; it could not therefore be a government of the majority, nor a republican form of government: and it was to be inaugurated and indefinitely controlled by the army, and therefore was in violation of the Constitutional principle which subordinates the military to the civil power."

The next plan of reconstruction was supported by those members of the Republican party in Congress who maintained that the states were in the Union in spite of secession, but that their people by secession had forfeited their federal rights, and were subject to the supreme authority of Congress. Of this plan of reconstruction Mr. Scott says that if its champions had followed it to its logical conclusion they would have had to concede that under any circumstances, those of reconstruction included, their right of self-government had survived inviolate, and therefore that their restoration depended upon themselves. And he shows that no help could be found in the clause of the Constitution declaring that "the United States shall guarantee to every state in this Union a republican form of government";

for a guarantee implies a pre-existing government which had ceased to be republican, while all the seceded states had governments republican in form, which had been recognized as such by the United States from the beginning.

Of the third plan of reconstruction, which was finally adopted by Congress, Mr. Scott says:

"Much more manly and less dangerous were those who asserted that the seceded states, by the act of secession and by maintaining this secession by force of arms, had placed themselves outside of the Union, and had become mere territories over which the federal government might exercise the rights of conquest. They knew well that any policy which had for its foundations the inequality of the states, the interference of the federal government in the affairs of a state within the Union, the subordination of the civil to the military power, and the abrogation of the rule of the majority, had no countenance from anything within the four corners of the Constitution, and was in violation of the spirit as well as of the tenor of the bond of union. . . . This view placed the states without the pale of the Union and the Constitution; it made their soil conquered territory, to be disposed of as the United States should think fit, and making the rebels belligerents, handed them over when conquered to the mercy of the federal government."

But Mr. Scott, nevertheless, condemns this plan quite as unsparingly as the two preceding ones. Taking his stand against all schemes of reconstruction as unwarranted by the Constitution, he believes the rebels, when conquered, had no duty to perform but to return to their allegiance, and that the government had no right to prescribe any conditions whatever. He emphasizes the words of Lincoln: "No state, upon its own mere motion, can lawfully get out of the Union." This is undoubtedly true; but he does not say that it cannot do this unlawfully. That an unlawful act cannot be done lawfully, is a simple truism; but the effect or consequence of such act presents another question. The saying, "Once a state, always a state," is a mere legal fiction, like the statement of Chief Justice Chase that the government is "an indissoluble union of indestructible states." The history of the world gives no account of an indestructible state, or an indissoluble confederacy of states. Time and chance pertain to everything that is human. Mr. Scott evidently agrees with a great party leader of the reconstruction period, that there was "no power in the federal government to punish the people of a state collectively, by reducing it to a territorial condition, since the crime of treason is individual, and can only be treated individually." A rebellious state would thus become independent. If her people could right