The last regulation aimed to prevent any recurrence of the old evils. The first three measures roughly redressed the past. They were, of course, a sweeping confiscation of property. The Eupatrids showed a singular moderation in submitting to them without a death struggle. Happily, the act did not become a precedent. The Athenians never again went so far as to confiscate debts. In later times the whole people celebrated the acts of Solon by a yearly "Festival of the Shaking off of Burdens."

127. Political Reform. Indirectly, a political revolution went with these economic changes, although, so far, the letter of the constitution was untouched. Political power was already based upon landed property. Accordingly, these land reforms carried with them a redistribution of political power. The process continued, too, of itself. Merchants, by the purchase of land, rose into the first class, while Eupatrids sank into other classes until the very name soon disappeared. But, in a second year, Solon did directly introduce political changes that carried Athens well into the current of democracy. He seems not to have created new offices or institutions; but, as he had already redistributed the people within the old political classes, so now he redistributed power among these classes and among the old governing bodies.

a. The fourth class, who had had no political rights, were now admitted to the Assembly.

b. A senate of four hundred (one hundred by lot from the higher classes of each Athenian tribe) took over the general administration from the Areopagus, and prepared measures to submit to the Assembly.

c. The new Assembly (all Athenians) discussed and decided upon proposals of the senate; elected archons from the first class,' and minor officers from the three higher classes; and

1 Aristotle says that by Solon's constitution the archons were chosen by lot from forty candidates nominated in equal numbers by the separate tribes. But if this was so, the practice of election seems to have been revived within a short time, and to have continued until 487 B.C. (§ 193).

tried officers at the expiration of their terms, if any citizen accused them.

d. The Areopagus was no longer a Eupatrid council. It was composed of ex-archons, and was shorn of most of its powers. Its deliberative and administrative office had gone to the senate; its power of electing archons to the Assembly; its judicial function (for the most part) to the Assembly and to new courts. It remained a court to try murder cases, and to exercise a moral censorship over the life of the citizens, with power to impose fines for extravagance, insolence, or gluttony. 128. Minor Reforms. Solon also substituted a milder code for Draco's bloody laws, introduced a new coinage better suited for foreign commerce, made it the duty of each father to teach his son a trade (upon penalty of forfeiting obligation for support in his old age), limited the wealth that might be buried with the dead, restricted the appearance of women in public, and enacted that any Athenian who remained neutral in civic strife should forfeit citizenship.

129. Summary of the Solonian Constitution and of the Changes of a Century.

682 B.C. A few noble families owned most of the soil, and held the rest of the people in virtual servitude. These same families of course possessed all political power, and ruled through the assembly of their order on the Areopagus, and through annual committees chosen by that body.

593 B.C.- Nearly all Athenian tribesmen were land owners. All tribesmen were members of the political Assembly, which elected officers (so far as election was not settled by lot), tried them upon occasion, and decided public questions. Administrative power rested partly in annual officers and partly in a senate chosen by tribes. Eligibility to office was based upon property qualification.1

1 This was the case in nearly all the American states for some time after the Revolutionary War.

The economic change was all Solon's. The political reforms were largely his, and any that had been introduced before gained increased significance from his work. The lot was introduced, doubtless, to check the tendency to elect only the old chiefs. It was regarded as an appeal to the gods, and its use was always accompanied by religious ceremonies.

E. THE TYRANTS.

130. Anarchy Renewed. The reforms of Solon did not end the turbulent strife of factions. Bitter feuds followed between the Plain (wealthy landowners), the Shore (merchants), and the Mountain (shepherds and small farmers). Twice within ten years, anarchy prevented the election of an archon at all, and once an archon tried to make himself tyrant by holding over without reëlection.

131. Peisistratus, 560-527. - From such anarchy the city was saved by Peisistratus, a kinsman of Solon, who in 560 B.C. made himself tyrant by help of the democratic faction. Twice the nobles drove him into exile, once for ten years, but each time he recovered his power almost without bloodshed. His rule was mild, wise, and popular. He lived simply, like other citizens, and appeared in a law court to answer in a suit against him; and he always treated the aged Solon with deep respect, despite the latter's bitter opposition. Indeed, he gov erned through the forms of Solon's constitution, and enforced his laws, taking care only to have his own friends elected to the chief offices, more like the "boss" of a great political "machine" than like a "tyrant." During his third rule, however, he did secure himself by mercenary soldiers and by banishing many hostile nobles. He encouraged commerce, enlarged and beautified Athens, built aqueducts and roads, and drew to his court a brilliant circle of poets, painters, architects, and sculptors from all Hellas. The first complete edition of the Homeric poems is said to have been put together at his command and expense. Anacreon wrote his graceful odes at the

Peisistratid court, and Thespis began Greek tragedy at the magnificent festivals there instituted to Dionysus (god of wine). The public worship was given new splendor in other ways, and rural festivals were instituted to make country life more attractive. Solon's peasant proprietors were increased in number by the division of the confiscated estates of banished nobles among landless freemen. The three higher property classes paid a five per cent income tax (at first ten per cent), but in return they were taught the value of peace and order. Attica was no longer plundered by invasion or torn by dissension. Since the Athenians could not yet govern themselves, it was well they had a Peisistratus.

"Not only was he in every respect humane and mild and ready to forgive those who offended, but in addition he advanced money to the poorer people to help them in their labors.

"For the same reasons [to make rural life attractive] he instituted local justices, and often made expeditions in person into the country to inspect it, and to settle disputes between persons, that they might not come to the city and neglect their farms. It was in one of these progresses, as the story goes, that Peisistratus had his adventure with the man in the district of Hymettus, who was cultivating the spot afterwards known as the Tax-free Farm.' He saw a man digging at very stony ground with a stake, and sent and asked what he got out of such a plot of land. 'Aches and pains,' said the man, and out of these Peisistratus must get his tenth.' Peisistratus was so pleased with his frank speech and his industry that he granted him exemption from taxes.". ARISTOTLE, Constitution of Athens, 17.

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132. Expulsion of the Peisistratidae. In 527, Peisistratus was succeeded by his sons, Hippias and Hipparchus. The latter was murdered because of a private grudge, and the terrified Hippias exchanged his previous kindly rule for a cruel and suspicious policy that ripened revolt. Cleisthenes, one of the exiled nobles, saw his opportunity. His family (wealthy even in exile) had just rebuilt the burned temple of Apollo at Delphi with much greater magnificence than the contract had demanded, using Parian marble for the prescribed limestone; and now (according to Herodotus) Cleisthenes "bribed" the oracle to order

the Spartans, whenever they applied for advice on any matter, to "set free the Athenians." In consequence a reluctant Spartan army did finally march against Hippias, and he was expelled in 510 B.C.

F. CLEISTHENES-A DEMOCRACY.

133. Vigor of Free Athens. fusion again, but the outcome proved that they had gained in strength and in power to govern themselves. An oligarchic party that strove for a reaction was defeated by the democrats, led by the returned Cleisthenes. A Spartan army restored the oligarchs for a moment, but was itself soon besieged in the Acropolis, and captured by the aroused democracy. The Thebans and Euboeans had seized what seemed a time of confusion and weakness to invade Attica, but were routed by a double engagement in one day. The Athenians had enjoyed little fame in war, "but now," says Aristotle, "they showed that men would fight more bravely for themselves than for a master." Chalcis in Euboea was stormed, and its trade with Thrace (§ 105) fell to Athens. At the same time Athens began her special kind of colonization by sending four thousand citizens to possess the best land of Chalcis, and to serve as a garrison there. These men retained full Athenian citizenship. They were known as cleruchs, or out-settlers. In this way Athens was to find land for her surplus population, to strengthen her democratic tendencies, and to fortify her influence abroad all without decreasing her fighting strength.

The Athenians were now in con

134. The Conditions and the Aims of the New Constitution. During the war Athens made fresh strides toward completing the work of Solon by adopting a more democratic constitution, proposed by Cleisthenes. The general design was to develop the democratic features of the older constitution and to weaken the aristocratic ones. It also aimed to get rid of family and local faction, and to strengthen the state by bringing in new citizens.

The tendency to factiousness arose (a) from the method of