beauty service. The great majority of these schools received aid from the Federal Government. Federally aided schools enrolled over 12,000 women students in courses for beauty operators in 1955. Vocational courses also are given in schools supported solely by State and local governments.

As to costs, no tuition is charged for students in public schools, but they must purchase a certain amount of equipment. They usually purchase cosmetic supplies from the school, which buys in quantity and sells at cost to the students. The total outlay may amount to $20 or $30. Students furnish the uniforms and the white shoes and hose worn during the practice periods. They also pay for the physical examination required before admission, unless it is given by the school physician.

Programs in public vocational schools usually include cosmetology training in connection with high-school courses lasting from 1 to 4 years, depending on the girl's previous schooling. Besides learning the skills of the occupation, the students are expected to take academic subjects which lead to a vocational high-school diploma. However, some public vocational schools offer cosmetology courses restricted to the theory and

Figure 4.-Beauty students in a public vocational high school in a science class.

practice of beauty culture, giving only the minimum amount of training prescribed by the State board of cosmetology to qualify for the licensing examination. Some vocational schools also have separate full-time classes with courses similar to those for girls of high-school age, but geared to the needs of adult students. Examples of cosmetology training courses in public vocational schools are shown in the appendix, p. 44.

For vocational high-school students taking a cosmetology course, the schedule of classes is often arranged so that the classroom work takes half the day and practice work the other half.

The classroom training usually includes an introduction to the scientific basis of cosmetology—for example, the applied principles of physiology, bacteriology, anatomy, and chemistry. Students also study sanitation, physical therapy, and applied electricity. As many beauticians eventually own and manage their own shops, courses in management and recordkeeping may be given. These usually cover the planning of a shop, selection of equipment and supplies, dispensing of cosmetics, care of tools and equipment, the keeping of an appointment book, principles of advertising, payroll computations, handling of bank accounts, and establishment of good relations with customers and personnel.

In practice periods, the work is on the basis of individual instruction to a great extent, and therefore classes are kept small. In some States the law limits to 20 the number of cosmetology pupils per teacher. The students usually practice on each other for the first part of the course, some instructors arranging for a rotation system. Later they may practice on girls from other classes or from other schools. In one trade school, for example, a girl who is not a cosmetology student must have perfect attendance with no tardiness for a week in order to be eligible for beauty service.

During the latter part of their course, the students give waves and haircuts to customers who pay a fee smaller than commercial rates to cover costs of materials. The students work on these “models,” as they are called, under close supervision by the instructors. While the students work more slowly than experienced beauticians, the instructors assert that the final results are satisfactory. Practice is given in hairdressing, including waving, cutting, and shampooing. Students also are taught how to give cosmetic treatments, manicures, and, in some schools, pedicures.

By the time the course is completed, the student is prepared to qualify as an operator by taking the licensing examination given by the State board of cosmetology. She has learned to use some of the elements of science in her practical work; to develop judgment in the use of tools, equipment, and materials; and to take precautions to safeguard her own health and that of her fellow workers and customers. The school also

seeks to aid the student in developing desirable personal relationships, so that she can make a satisfactory adjustment when she begins actual work in the beauty-culture field.

The program sometimes is slightly altered for the few male students who enter cosmetology courses. They may have more training in hair styling than the women students. Since they often plan to become shop owners, the business courses may be stressed.

Many schools operate night classes. Those attending may be former beauty operators who want a "brush-up" course before renewing their licenses, or practicing operators who desire to learn the latest methods, procedures, and equipment in this fast-changing type of work, or to learn specialties such as hair styling or hair coloring. As soon as these evening students learn the skill which interests them, they leave the class.

However, some schools provide night classes for beginners employed in other types of work during the day. For a high-school graduate, it takes from 2 to 4 years to complete in night school the full course leading to a beauty license. If not a high-school graduate, a beginner may have to take academic courses in addition to the cosmetology program, thus extending the time.

PRIVATE BEAUTY-CULTURE SCHOOLS.-There are many more private beauty schools than there are public vocational schools offering courses in beauty culture. Over 900 private schools were reported in 1955. New students are admitted throughout the year; one private school, for instance, admits students each Monday. Private schools usually require full-time daily attendance. Some admit women up to and beyond 50 years of age as beginners.

The students in private schools, like those in public schools, work on "dummy" heads or on each other in practice periods until they have acquired sufficient skill to give beauty treatments to the public under the supervision of instructors. The "models" on whom they then practice are charged low rates.

The tuition costs in private schools vary considerably, depending on the type of school, prices in the locality, the extent to which equipment is furnished, and number of hours of training required by the State cosmetology board.

The main objective of private beauty schools usually is to train beauticians and prepare students for the licensing examination. For this reason they usually omit the academic classes required in most—though not all-public vocational schools. As soon as a student has completed the required practice hours, she is ready to take the examination.

For example, in one city where 1,500 clock hours of practice are required for a license, students in private schools complete their courses in 8 to 9 months. In the same area students in vocational schools, which give high-school instruction in addition to the beauty training, usually complete the 1,500 hours in 2 years and may

then take the licensing examination; after obtaining an operator's license, they can work part time until they have completed the requirements for a high-school diploma.

Some private schools have more comprehensive schedules, however. These give instruction in basic and related sciences, with some training in business management and good opportunities in practice work. One such school holds a class in theory for an hour each morning and has an examination period each week to determine the progress being made.

Apprentice Training

Beauty operators sometimes learn their skills as apprentices. As inexperienced workers they enter a beauty shop and are trained on the job by experienced operators. In about half the States the boards of cosmetology accept apprentice training under an approved operator as a qualification for the licensing examination, in lieu of attendance at a beauty-culture school. The period of apprenticeship required varies widely, but usually is longer than the term at a beauty school.

For example, the Maryland board requires 9 months (1,500 clock hours) of training in a beauty school or an apprenticeship period of 2 years as a qualification for the licensing examination. In Nebraska, the board accepts apprentice training for as little as 8 months. Arizona and Georgia specify 3 years of apprentice training. Wisconsin and Hawaii require 4,000 clock hours of apprenticeship. Missouri requires 2,000 clock hours of apprenticeship in 1 year; New Hampshire, 2,000 hours in 2 years.

In a number of States the apprentice is required to pay for an apprentice permit costing from $1 to $3. Apprentices usually are paid while in training.

One State, Wisconsin, registers a substantial number of cosmetology apprentices. In this State, the apprentice may begin with a wage set at 30 to 40 percent of the licensed operator's wage. This rate is gradually increased as the training progresses. When she is near the end of the training period and has acquired most of the skills of the trade, the trainee may be receiving about 90 percent of the licensed operator's wage.

The success of the apprenticeship method, particularly where specified standards do not exist, depends largely upon the operator who undertakes to do the training. In some cases, the operator may be inclined to give time to the apprentice only when she is not busy with her customers, so that the training tends to become somewhat perfunctory. However, some State cosmetology boards have strict regulations for shops that train apprentices and establish standards similar to those for beauty schools. The licensed beauty operator who trains an apprentice may be required to obtain an authorization for this purpose from the board. Details may be prescribed as to the terms and conditions of work and the number of hours of apprentice training necessary for each type of beauty treatment.

New Hampshire specifies that a beautician must have 2 years of experience before she is permitted to train an apprentice.

The apprentice method of training for beauticians is less prevalent than education in a beauty school. As has already been indicated, only about half of the States accept apprentice training as preparation for the licensing examination. In addition, the number of apprentices may be regulated to prevent using several apprentices as assistants, merely to lower operation costs. For example, the number of apprentices in a shop may be limited to one, or one to every three operators.

No figures are available on the number of apprentice-trained beauty operators in the country as a whole. But, in Michigan, for example, where apprentice training is permitted, the cosmetology board reported that in 1954 somewhat less than 9 percent of the licensed operators had had apprentice training. And Wisconsin, one of the few States that registers cosmetology apprentices under a Federal-State apprentice-training program, reported 304 in September 1955; this is in the ratio of 1 apprentice to about 24 licensed beauty operators.

Advanced Training for Specialties

If a beauty operator wishes to become a specialist in some branch of the work such as hair styling, hair coloring, or scalp or facial treatments, she may need additional training. Both public vocational schools and private schools frequently operate advanced classes for practicing operators, usually at night for the convenience of employed beauticians. Similarly, if the operator seeks an executive position as shop manager, or desires to become a teacher in a beauty school, she will find it of advantage to attend special classes. Some State cosmetology boards have detailed requirements for such jobs; a beauty operator desiring full information should consult the cosmetology board of her State.

For the specialized occupation of electrology, instruction frequently is given in regular beauty-culture courses. In addition, a number of schools offer special training. Instruction for this occupation sometimes is given under the apprenticeship system by an electrologist in a beauty shop.

A few higher educational institutions offer regular cosmetology courses. For example, the Municipal University of Omaha, Nebr., awards a Certificate of Cosmetology Technology after the completion of a 30 semesterhour course.

A number of colleges and universities offer summer workshops and institutes to help teachers and beauticians who wish to improve their performance. Beauticians find that these workshops raise their performance to higher levels and influence their careers favorably.