vided where the size of the plant makes it practicable; facilities to conform to high standards of health and sanitation. 3. Medical services in the plant commensurate with needs of the workers. 4. A program to discover and protect against occupational hazards arising from the use of dangerous substances or processes. 5. Provision for mechanical aids in lifting weights. Elimination of undue physical strain for women workers. 6. Suitable seats, in adequate numbers; workers to be free to use them at all times if the nature of the job permits, and in any event during periods when not actively engaged in performance of duties that require a standing position. For Safety 1. Equipment and machinery in good working condition, with adequate guards against injury. 2. Safety equipment and clothing, such as goggles, safety shoes, protective gloves, as needed, maintained in good condition. 3. Safe and uncrowded work space; stairways, floors, halls, rooms, and passageways kept in good condition and adequately lighted. 4. A continuing safety program and training in safety on the job for all workers. Industrial Homework Industrial homework should be limited by law to handicapped persons who are unable to leave home for regular employment. For such workers it should be controlled by licensing provisions and related standards. 5 STATE LABOR LAWS FOR WOMEN as of April 1, 1956 Basic Standards Standards for women in private employment have been established in each of the 48 States, the District of Columbia, Alaska, Hawaii and Puerto Rico. Principal subjects of regulation are (1) wages, including minimum wages and equal pay; (2) hours of work, including maximum daily and weekly hours, day of rest, meal and rest periods, and nightwork; (3) industrial homework; (4) certain hazardous or unhealthful types or conditions of employment; (5) plant facilities; and (6) employment before and after childbirth. Not every State has enacted legislation on each of these subjects, and the standards established vary widely from State to State. In most laws, coverage is expressly limited to women or to women and minors. In the last three-quarters of a century there has been notable development in labor legislation for women, both as to the number of laws enacted and the standards established. In the following pages, information is given on State standards in effect April 1, 1956, in one or more industries in the major fields of minimum wage, equal pay, and hours of work, and in some other miscellaneous fields. Highest standards in effect April 1, 1956, are shown. Most of the standards are established by statute; some are provided for in minimum-wage or industrial-welfare orders. Additional information is available in other publications listed in Current Publications of the Women's Bureau, which will be furnished upon request. Minimum Wage In 1955, with the enactment of laws in Idaho, New Mexico, and Wyoming, minimum-wage legislation was on the statute books in 29 States, the District of Columbia, Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. Two-thirds of these laws are applicable to women or to women and minors. One-third of the laws apply also to adult males. Most of them are applicable to all occupations or industries except agriculture and domestic service. In practice, however, minimum-wage orders issued under State laws apply largely to workers in local trade and service industries. The Federal Fair Labor Standards Act, originally enacted in 1938 and most recently amended in 1955, sets basic wage-andhour standards for workers, both men and women, in manufacturing and other interstate industries. Originally, State minimum-wage legislation was designed for the protection of women and minors and did much to raise the extremely inadequate wages in manufacturing as well as trade and service occupations. The first State minimum-wage law for women was enacted by Massachusetts in 1912. In the next 10 years, during which World War I took place, laws were enacted in 14 States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. A decision of the United States Supreme Court in the succeeding decade, holding unconstitutional the District of Columbia law (Adkins case, 1923) temporarily interrupted the advance of new legislation. However, a number of States continued to administer existing laws. In the depression of the 1930's, stimulated by the force of public opinion, 12 more States enacted laws. The United States Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Washington State law (Parrish case) in 1937, expressly reversing its prior decision on the District of Columbia law. In 1941, Hawaii enacted a minimum-wage law and Puerto Rico its second law, applicable to all persons, in which provision was made for setting minimum-wage rates by wage-board procedure. Three additional States-Idaho, New Mexico1 and Wyoming-enacted laws for the first time in 1955, and a number of others provided for increases in rates.2 The jurisdictions having minimum-wage legislation are as follows: Arizona *Arkansas (females) 1 New Mexico District Court, Sixth District, declared the act unconstitutional; the case is being appealed. 2 A Rhode Island enactment of May 1956 established a statutory minimum-wage rate of 90 cents an hour, effective Oct. 1, 1956, making it the 13th jurisdiction having a rate set by statute. A comprehensive Puerto Rico act, approved June 26, 1956, establishes a series of statutory minimum rates by industry classifications, the highest being $1 an hour. It also provides for the establishment of a statutory Minimum-Wage Board authorized to fix minimum wages not exceeding $1 an hour for individual industries. The act expressly repeals minimum-wage acts of 1941 and 1919 but continues in full force and effect decrees promulgated under the 1941 act, with wage modifications as provided in the new act. **State wage-board laws amended to include statutory rates. ***See footnote 2, p. 64. NOTE.-Unless otherwise specified, law applies to women and minors. Methods of establishing minimum wages differ. In some States, minimum wages are fixed in the statute itself; in others they are established by minimum-wage orders issued by the State labor commissioner; and in others by both statutory rate and wage order. In most of the jurisdictions having minimum-wage laws, and in the District of Columbia, minimum wages are not in effect until wage orders are issued in an individual industry or occupation by the commissioner. However, in 12 jurisdictions,2 rates are set by statute or by statute and wage order. 2 See footnote 2, p. 64. In 11 jurisdictions-Connecticut, Idaho, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Mexico, New York, Rhode Island, Wyoming, Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico-minimum-wage laws are applicable to adult males as well as to women and minors. Equal Pay Laws applicable to private employment which establish the equalpay principle-i. e., a wage rate based on the job and not on the sex of the worker-are in effect in 16 States and Alaska: The 16 States listed account for slightly over half of all employed women in the United States. The Colorado and Montana equal-pay laws have the most complete employee coverage; they apply to public as well as to private employment. In all but two of the other States, the laws apply to most types of private employment; those of Illinois and Michigan are applicable only to manufacturing. Establishment of equal pay for women helps to safeguard wage levels of all workers and to sustain consumer purchasing power. Public attention was first sharply focused on equal pay for women during World War I when large numbers of women were employed in emergency war industries on the same jobs as men, and the National War Labor Board enforced the policy of "no wage discrimination against women on the grounds of sex." In 1919, two States-Michigan and Montana-enacted equal-pay laws. Greater progress came during World War II when additional large numbers of women entered the labor force, many of them in jobs previously held by men. Government agencies, employers, unions, women's organizations, and the general public were concerned with the removal of wage differentials as a means of furthering the war effort. During the period 1943-45, equal-pay legislation was enacted in 4 States-Illinois, Massachusetts, New York, and Washington; and in the 4 years following in 6 more States-California, Connecticut, Maine, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island. In 1949, Alaska became the first Territory to take such action. New Jersey enacted its equal-pay law in 1952; Arkansas, Colorado, and Oregon adopted their legislation in 1955. Interest in equal-pay legislation is not confined to State action. The President, in his State of the Union message, January 5, 1956, declared: "Legislation to apply the principle of equal pay for equal work with 1 See footnote 1, p. 64. |