communicating directly with governments on a full range of issues by stating our views and listening to theirs-we can help avoid misunderstandings and affect the decisions and actions of other governments. This is particularly true in crises, when good communication is essential.

Criteria for Recognition

Diplomatic recognition of governments is a comparatively recent practice in the history of international relations. Traditionally some European governments used nonrecognition of revolutionary change to protect monarchies and to emphasize the unique legitimacy of dynastic heirs and their governments. France ignored this tradition by recognizing the United States during our Revolutionary War. Later, when the revolutionary French Government took power in 1792, Thomas Jefferson, our first Secretary of State, instructed the U.S. envoy in Paris to deal with it because it had been "formed by the will of the nation substantially declared."

Throughout most of the 19th century, the United States recognized stable governments without thereby attempting to confer approval. U.S. recognition policy grew more complex as various Administrations applied differing criteria for recognition and expressed differently the reasons for their decisions. For example, Secretary of State William Seward (1861-69) added as a criterion the government's ability to honor its international obligations; President Rutherford Hayes (1877-81) required a demonstration of popular support for the new government; and President Woodrow Wilson (1913-21) favored using recognition to spread democracy around the world by demanding free elections.

Other criteria have been applied since then. These include the degree of foreign involvement in the government as well as the government's political orientation, attitude toward foreign investment, and treatment of U.S. citizens, corporations, and government representatives.

One result of such complex recognition criteria was to create the impression among other nations that the United States approved of those governments it recognized and disapproved of those from which it withheld recognition. This appearance of approval, in turn, affected our decisions in ways that have not always advanced U.S. interests. In recent years, U.S. practice has been to deemphasize and avoid the use of recognition in cases of changes of governments and to concern ourselves with the question of whether we wish to have diplomatic relations with the new governments.

The Administration's policy is that establishment of relations does not involve approval or disapproval but merely demonstrates a willingness on our part to conduct our affairs with other governments directly. In today's interdependent world, effective contacts with other governments are of ever-increasing importance.

Status of Relations

Albania. There has been no Albanian expression of interest in establishing diplomatic relations.

Angola. The United States looks forward eventually to establishing relations with Angola.

Cambodia. The new government of what is now Democratic Kampuchea has expressed no interest in establishing relations with the United States.

People's Republic of China. The P.R.C. and the United States maintain liaison offices in each other's capitals. The goal of U.S. policy is normalization of U.S.-P.R.C. relations on the basis of the Shanghai communique (1972).

Cuba. The United States is seeking to normalize relations with Cuba through negotiations based on strict reciprocity.

Equatorial Guinea. The United States suspended relations following a dispute over treatment of the U.S. Ambassador.

Iraq. The United States will reestablish diplomatic relations, which Iraq suspended, whenever Iraq desires.

North Korca. The United States is prepared to move toward improved relations, provided North Korea's allies take steps to improve relations with South Korea.

Mongolia. The United States has made clear to the Mongolian People's Republic that we are prepared to continue negotiations begun in 1973 aimed at establishing diplomatic relations.

Vietnam. The United States and Vietnam have begun discussions to explore the possibility of normalizing relations.

South Yemen. The United States looks forward to normalizing relations with South Yemen.

77 Dept. of State Bulletin 462-463 (1977). For the text of the Shanghai Communique, see 66 Dept. of State Bulletin 435-438 (1972).

People's Republic of the Congo

On June 15, 1977, John H. Trattner, Director of the Office of Press Relations of the Department of State, read the following joint communique between the United States and the People's Republic of the Congo concerning the resumption of full diplomatic relations:

An American delegation led by the Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs, William E. Schaufele, Jr., and a Congolese delegation led by Minister of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation. Theophile Obenga, met in Bonn, Federal Republic of Germany, on June 6, 1977. As a result of this meeting, the Governments of the United States of America and the People's Republic of the Congo have agreed to end the suspension of their diplomatic relations as of June 7, 1977, and to reopen their embassies in Brazzaville and Washington.

The two governments express their hope that this step will strengthen relations between their countries and contribute substantially to bettering their mutual understanding and cooperation based on the principles of reciprocal respect, sovereign equality, and non-interference in internal affairs. In this connection, the two governments reaffirm their adherence to the principles of inter

national law, and, in particular, to the provisions of the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations.

Dept. of State News Briefing, DPC 109, June 15, 1977.

Earlier in 1977, the late President N'Gouabi sent a congratulatory inaugural message to President Carter in which N'Gouabi expressed his desire to normalize relations with the United States during 1977. President Carter's response via the German Ambassador in Brazzaville expressed the hope that the two countries would find ways to move toward normalization of relations and proposed a meeting at a mutually convenient time and place.

President Carter's message reached the Congolese Government after N'Gouabi's assassination March 18, and was subsequently broadcast on Radio Brazzaville by the new government. On May 3 President Yhomby-Opango sent President Carter a message reiterating the Congo's willingness to resume full diplomatic relations. President Carter's reply to Yhomby-Opango suggested an early June meeting in Bonn to discuss issues of concern to both countries.

The major outstanding issues between the U.S. and Congolese Governments, treatment of U.S. diplomats and compensation for nationalized U.S. firms, posed no difficulties in the discussions. With regard to the first issue, the Congolese agreed to inclusion in the final communique of a statement on the protection of diplomats as provided for by the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations [TIAS 7502; 23 UST 3227; entered into force for the United States December 13, 1972]. On the compensation issue, the Congolese agreed to new talks with Texaco and Mobil beginning as early as July 1977. On October 30, 1977, the U.S. Embassy in Brazzaville reopened when Chargé d'Affaires Jay Katzen arrived in Brazzaville. Four Americans were assigned to Chargé Katzen's staff.

Current Foreign Relations: Issue No. 24, June 15, 1977.

Cuba

On May 20, 1977, in an interview with out-of-town editors and news directors, President Carter outlined in response to a question the U.S. position concerning the restoration of diplomatic relations with Cuba:

We have had no indication from Castro that Cuba is interested in the restoration of diplomatic relations with us.

When I was first in office . . ., a question was asked . . . about what we hope to achieve in the process of restoring those normal relationships.

One thing that I pointed out was a demonstration by the Cubans of their commitment to the human rights concept, particularly by

releasing some of the thousands of political prisoners that they have had incarcerated for a number of years, fifteen to twenty years; secondly, the abstaining by the Cubans of their involvement in the internal affairs of nations, particularly in Africa, and a refraining on their part from disruptive practices in the Caribbean, particularly their insistence that Puerto Rico be independent of us.

Of course, we want Puerto Rico to make their own decision about what their status should be. We have successfully concluded a fisheries agreement and a maritime agreement with Cuba. My guess is that in the near future we will have some diplomatic officials in Cuba and some Cuban diplomatic officials in Washington, not in our own embassies, but just as observers.

I don't know what Castro's intentions are. I have had no indication that he wants to proceed any more rapidly than we are proceeding, but those are elements that are very important to us. Of course, what he has asked for is an immediate termination of the embargo, trade embargo, against Cuba as a prerequisite to other negotiations which I think is something that he is not likely to achieve.

Question: And Guantanamo, too, was mentioned by Raoul Castro? The President: That is right. There are several other obviously very complicated elements in dealing with Cuba.

13 Weekly Comp. of Pres. Doc. 768 (May 30, 1977).

On June 3, 1977, John H. Trattner, Director of the Office of Press Relations of the Department of Statc, announced during the daily news briefing the opening of interests sections in Havana and Washington:

The Governments of the Republic of Cuba and the United States of America exchanged notes in New York City on May 30 agreeing to the simultaneous opening of a United States Interests Section in the Embassy of Switzerland in Havana and a Cuban Interests Section in the Embassy of Czechoslovakia in Washington.

This agreement will facilitate communications between the two Governments and will provide a greater range of consular services for the citizens of the two countries than are currently available. This step has the approval of the Governments of Switzerland and Czechoslovakia.

The notes were exchanged by Dr. Pelegrin Torras, Vice Minister of External Affairs for Cuba, and Mr. William H. Luers, Acting Assistant Secretary of State for the United States.

Dept. of State News Briefing, DPC 101, June 3, 1977. Dept. of State Press Release 256, June 3, 1977. The body of the U.S. note constituting the agreement, which was negotiated by Deputy Assistant Secretary Luers and Vice Deputy Minister for Foreign Affairs Torras, follows:

I have the honor to refer to the negotiations that our two delegations have conducted toward establishing an Interests Section of the United States of America in the Embassy of Switzerland in Havana and an Interests Section of Cuba in the Embassy of Czechoslovakia in Washington. We have reached agreement on the functions, personnel, privileges and immunities that both Sections will enjoy on the basis of full reciprocity. Each Interests Section will be headed by a diplomat with the rank of Counselor. The Interests Sections will

be able to employ a reasonable number of nationals of the receiving State, in Cuba through the national enterprise CUBALSE, and in the United States through normal employment practices.

Both Sections will be located in those buildings that were occupied by the Embassies of the United States of America in Havana and of the Republic of Cuba in Washington and will be under the protection of the Embassy of Switzerland in Havana and of the Embassy of Czechoslovakia in Washington. Both Interests Sections will be inviolable. Entry will not be permitted without the consent of the heads of the Interests Sections.

Signs on the exterior of the buildings occupied by the Interests Sections will indicate: Embassy of Switzerland in Havana, United States Interests Section, and Embassy of Czechoslovakia in Washington, Cuban Interests Section. The official stationery of both Interests Sections shall be so lettered with the exception of that used for internal communications.

No flags nor national seals of either country shall be displayed on the outside of the aforementioned buildings or other properties, except those that are engraved on the buildings, because they are under the protection of other diplomatic missions.

Automobiles and other means of transportation used by the Interests Sections or their employees, shall be licensed in the series assigned to the automobiles belonging to the Swiss Embassy in Havana and the Czechoslovakian Embassy in Washington respectively and may only display the flags of those countries.

Official access of the United States Interests Section to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Havana and of the Cuban Interests Section to the Department of State in Washington will be at the same level.

The Interests Sections shall have the right of free communication for all official purposes, using open or encrypted diplomatic mail or communications. Official correspondence and diplomatic pouches will be inviolable, in accordance with international practice. The Interests Sections may maintain radio transmitters only with the consent of the host country.

Members of the Interests Sections shall have freedom to travel throughout the territory of the host country in accordance with the established international practice commonly accepted for Embassy personnel. In accordance with Protocol, the Head of each Interests Section shall rank in diplomatic precedence after Chargés d'affaires. The Interests Sections may carry out routine diplomatic and consular functions and make their own financial transactions. Both Governments reconfirm their commitments under the applicable international treaties governing diplomatic and consular relations to which both are parties. Personnel of both Sections shall benefit from the privileges and immunities provided by those treaties.

The names of the diplomats of both Interests Sections will appear in the Diplomatic List, apart from and after those of the diplomats of the Government of Switzerland in the case of the United States and of the Government of Czechoslovakia in the case of Cuba.

The Government of the United States shall obtain the concurrence of the Government of Switzerland and the Government of Cuba shall obtain the concurrence of the Government of Czechoslovakia to this arrangement.

Subject to the preceding paragraph, the opening of the Interests Sections will take place simultaneously in both capitals at a date to be mutually agreed within one month of the date of this exchange of notes.

Dept. of State File No. P77 0104-100.

In his response to questions concerning this announcement, Mr. Trattner indicated that the agreement on Interest Sections was intended to facilitate discussion of problems and concerns that each country has with the other, and not to establish or to normalize relations. Among the obstacles to normal relations remaining to be overcome were such issues as the status of thirty American prisoners being held in Cuba, visitation rights for families divided between Cuba and