Communism. That creed or program holding that private property in essentials should be abolished, and that all necessary goods should be held in common, to be used by the individual according to his needs and desires. Examples of communist practice are to be found today in municipal streets, libraries, police and fire departments, schools, parks, sewage systems, street-lamps, etc.; an extension of the communist principle would occur if the individual were able to ride on railroads without payment of fare, the expense of the railroad systems being borne by the state irrespective of the varying usage of individuals. Obviously, extension of communism would depend upon increased production, and the practicable value of communism may be held to depend upon the extent to which the community is able to produce more goods by more scientific methods of procedure and by decreasing the production of non-essentials. (See also Socialism, Bolshevism and Anarchism.)

Communism is found in practice in the earliest records of civilization, and it is possible that the pre-historic tribes may have passed through a stage of communist existence. In many respects, the plan for an ideal state outlined in Plato's "Republic" may be called communistic, and if any one sociological label could be applied to the early Christian teachings, it would be "Communism." There were a number of communist groups in medieval times, largely Christian sects, and Sir Thomas More's "Utopia" was founded upon a basis largely communistic.

In the nineteenth century, largely as a result of the French Revolution and the teachings of Rousseau and the French Encyclopedists which preceded it, many communist schemes were evolved and put into practice, associated chiefly with the names of St. Simon, Blanc, Fourier, Cabet, and especially, Robert Owen. There have been numerous communist communities founded in the United States-such as Economy, Brook Farm, New Harmony, Oneida Community, Amana, Icaria, Zoar, Zion Citybut most of them have been unsuccessful and have failed to maintain themselves. Among the groups founding such communities were the Shakers, Perfectionists, Rappites. Separatists and Dowieites.

The founders of modern "scientific" Socialism were wont at first to describe themselves as Communists, rather than as Socialists, as in the first half of the nineteenth century the latter term meant much what "Utopists" does today. Thus Marx and Engels called their famous manifesto of 1848 the Communist Manifesto; but in later years the word "Communist" was displaced by "Socialist." Recently, however, the term "communism" has been resurrected to be applied to Bolshevism and the Bolsheviki, especially by those who maintain that Bolshevism is not good Socialism; but reference to the article on Bolshevism will show that Communism as applied to Bolshevism is largely a misnomer. The Bolshevist elements which seceded from the Socialist Party of America in 1919 called themselves the Communist Party and the Communist Labor Party.

Compact.-Used generally as synonymous with treaty in diplomatic relations between countries.

Compatriot.-A fellow-countryman.

Compensation for injuries received in government employ, 7342. Competitor, The,

persons claiming American citizenship captured on, by Spanish authorities, 6180, 6183, 6262. Compromise, Missouri. (See Missouri Compromise.)

Compromise of 1833.-The high tariff of 1828 caused much dissatisfaction throughout the south. By the act of July 14, 1832, amending the tariff law of 1828, many of the revenue taxes were reduced and the first tax was laid on woolen yarn. The oppressive features of these laws were more bitterly opposed in South Carolina than elsewhere, and resulted in the nullification of the law by that state. This was done by a convention held at Columbia, Nov. 19, 1832, which by ordinance declared the tariff acts of 1828 and 1832 null and void. Thus the question of nullification in its fullest development was March brought into national prominence. 1, 1833, Congress enacted a new tariff law in the nature of a compromise. It was practically the same bill as that introduced in the Senate by Henry Clay. It provided for the gradual scaling down of the high duties then existing until after ten years a free-trade basis should be reached. This compromise took the place of a low-tariff measure then under consideration in the House. The latter provided for a gradual scaling down of all duties so that 20 per cent should be the standard duty in 1842. (See also Nullification.)

Compromise of 1833, diminution of

duties under, referred to, 1955. Compromise of 1850.-On Jan. 29, 1850, Henry Clay introduced six resolutions in the Senate relating to (1) the admission of California as a free state; (2) Territorial governments for Utah and New Mexico without conditions as to slavery; (3) boundaries of Texas; (4) payment of Texas debt; (5) suppression of the slave trade in the District of Columbia: (6) fugitive slave laws. A special committee of thirteen, with Clay as chairman, combined these resolutions into one omnibus bill, which failed of passage. After the defeat of this (Clay's omnibus) bill several separate bills, having practically the same purpose of compromising on the slavery question, were introduced and passed. Under the compromise Texas was allowed $10,000,000 for New Mexico, and the area of that territory was reduced. Sept. 9, 1850, California was admitted to the Union with her free constitution. On the same day bills were passed for establishing territorial governments in New Mexico and Utah. These laws contain Senator Soulé's slavery-option clause. Sept. 12 amendments to the fugitive-slave law of Feb. 12, 1793, were passed, denying arrested negroes trial by jury and prohibiting redress to free colored seamen imprisoned in southern ports.

Compromise of 1850 (see also Slavery):
Adherence to, 2628, 2674.
Discussed, 2755.

Compromises of the Constitution.Three important compromises were made by the Constitutional Convention in 1787. The most important question that agitated the members was whether each state's in

fluence should be equal to that of any other state, or whether representation should be based upon population. The plan proposed by Edmund Randolph, of Virginia, and called the "Virginia plan," favored representation in both Houses according to population; that of William Paterson, of New Jersey, an equal vote for all states and only one House. As a compromise, proposed by William Samuel Johnson, of Connecticut, and originally suggested by George Mason, of Virginia, the Convention agreed to have two Houses with equal representation in the Senate and proportionate representation in the House. Secondly, it was proposed to tax both exports and imports at the discretion of Congress. Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, of South Carolina, declared that his state could not come into the Union under such a provision, as her wealth consisted mainly in one article of export-rice. It was therefore decided that no tax upon exports should be laid. Thirdly, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia refused to enter into the Union if the slave trade was to be prohibited; so the third compromise agreed to was that Congress should not prohibit traffic in slaves before 1808 and that a fugitive-slave law should be enacted. Comptroller of the Currency. (See

Treasury Department.)

Comptroller of the Currency, reforms

in office of, 7509. (See also Treasury Department.)

Comptroller of the Treasury. The office of Comptroiler of the Treasury was estab lished by act of Congress in 1789. As defined by the law of 1894. the office is in charge of all appeals from the findings of the auditors (q. v.), and advises and aids the Treasury Department in determining the validity of all appropriations and payments passing through the Treasury Department. The Comptroller of the Treasury therefore passes legal judgment over all expenditures coming through the treasury of the United States; and, except for review by the courts, his decision is final. His yearly salary is $6,000, and he is assisted by an assistant comptroller, who receives a yearly salary of $4,500. (See Treasury Department.) Comptroller of the Treasury, 785. Compulsory Military Service. A number of prominent Americans, notably ex-President Theodore Roosevelt and Major-General Leonard Wood, had been favoring compulsory military training for citizens of the United States even before the outbreak of the Great European War: but their efforts in this direction received little support from the mass of the American people. After August 1, 1914, however, a definite movement for military preparedness (see Preparedness) took shape in the United States, and the sentiment for universal military training became powerful. There arose also a strong antagonism to the proposal, and the discussion became active over the entire country.

Both the advantages and the disadvantages of the compulsory training are evident, and the question of its adoption hinges solely upon their relative values. Among the advantages may be cited the following: Compulsory military training is democratic, insofar as it places the burden of military service upon the shoulders of all alike, without distinction of wealth or of social station: whereas service in a small or even a

considerable professional army is apt to be declined by the middle and upper classes. A trained standing army, with an even larger number of trained reserves, is always available for an emergency, whereas it requires months of training, to say nothing of legislation, to raise an army from the untrained citizenry. In times of war, the expense and the uncertainty of voluntary recruiting are abolished, along with the hectic campaign of hatred and vituperation towards the country's enemies which characterized England's campaign for recruits in the European War, for instance. Universal training also should have a beneficial effect upon the physical development of the individual, in addition to providing a definite census of the physical situation of the country's inhabitants, with provision for any defects which may need to be remedied. Universal training has been adopted by practically every European country, with the exception of England, and by Japan: so that, despite the large population of the United States, she could not put into the field in case of conflict with any of these countries an army which would bear comparison in size with their armies. And the example of France and of Switzerland is mentioned to prove that a country may adopt military training for all its inhabitants without becoming militaristic or without being fired by lust for conquest or by chauvinism.

Opponents of universal military training point out, on the other hand, that Germany, which in recent years has stood before the world as the greatest exponent of militarism (q. v.), was the country in which universal training received its impetus and highest development. France, they declare, adopted universal service too recently for the military spirit to overwhelm the French people, while countries like Switzerland are too small and have a population too scattered to nourish the seeds of militarism. These opponents claim further that war at its best is a brutalizing influence, and that training for war is apt to have a brutalizing effect upon the individual. Military service means blind obedience to orders, and the consequent stunting of the individual initiative; and a democracy must perish when its people get out of the habit of thinking for themselves. The opposition of military training to the finer instincts of democracy is shown by the fact that many persons who found a place in our history as most serviceable Americans fled to this country to avoid serving in European armies. The physical improvement in the individual can be obtained with physical training methods aside from the military drill; and the United States, unlike the European countries, separated by a vast expanse of water from any possible enemies, need not fear an invasion upon a few days' notice. And although the possession of a large military strength need not imply a desire for the utilization of it, yet it may inculcate a psychological aggressiveness which will fan any latent war spirit in times of disturbance.

Germany was the first of the great European powers to inaugurate the system of universal military training, and her successes in 1866 and 1870 were so startling that her example was followed by most of the other European countries, with the exception of England, who relies upon her fleet for war strength. Under the German system, all men were called to the colors for two years' service when they reached the age of 20. Owing to the fact that there was a constitutional check of 1% of the population upon the size of Germany's standing army. there were many and liberal exemptions to

the liability for military service. The men from the maritime cities and provinces recruited the navy. All the officers of the German army were professional military men, and those citizens who were trained for the upper classes in the military service received only one year of training. From 22 to 27 the German man was under the first reserve, and from 27 to 45 in the second reserve. The normal professional army of Germany in peace times was about 870,000.

(See

France, although with a smaller population, by a system of three years' military service and of fewer exemptions has been able to maintain a peace army of about 720,000, including her colonial troops-only 150,000 less than the German army. Swiss System of Military Training, Australian System of Military Training; also Armies of the World, Military Training in Schools, World War, Preparedness.) Concessioner.-One who obtains a special privilege from the Government, like the privi lege of cutting timber or of using waterways.

Concessions, The.-The privileges enjoyed by New Jersey as a Province in 1664; these privileges having been granted by Berkeley and Carteret. who held authority from Charles II. These privileges served as a constitution for the Province of New Jersey until the Revolution.

Conciliation and Mediation. (See Medidiation and Conciliation.)

Concord (Mass.), Battle of.-One of the opening skirmishes of the Revolutionary War. A detachment of 800 British soldiers under Lieut.-Col. Smith and Maj. Pitcairn had been sent from Boston to destroy or capture some military stores collected at Concord by the Americans. After a brief engagement at Lexington they reached Concord April 19, 1775, where they were opposed by 300 minutemen under Col. Barrett and Maj. Buttrick. After a short conflict, in which several were lost on each side, the British fled to Boston under a harassing fire of the Americans. (See' also Lexington (Mass.), Battle of.)

Concord, The, mentioned, 6298, 6414, 6766, 6769, 6771.

Concurrent Resolution.-A resolution passed by the House of Representatives and the Senate not of sufficient importance to require the President's signature.

Confectionery. As early as 1816 there were twenty confectioners in Philadelphia, and perhaps as many in New York. Each dealer, as a rule, manufactured his own stock by hand and sold it at retall. In 1845 machinery was introduced into the business, and the trade has so increased that today the manufacture of special machinery for confectioners' use has become a separate and important industry.

Among the pioneers in the business were Sebastian Henrion, succeeded in 1844 by Henrion & Chauveau and later by Sebastian Chauveau, who was the first to manufacture gum-drops, ju-jube paste and marshmallows in this country; Paul Lajas, who became a sugar refiner; George Miller, William N. Herring, S. S. Rennels and J. J. Richardson, of Philadelphia. In New York, Ridley & Co. was established in 1806; R. L. Stuart in 1828, followed by Thompson, Stryker and the Delmonico Brothers. In Boston, the Chases, Copenhagen, Nichols and Fenno were leaders, while in Baltimore the pioneers were Bouvey, Price and Bridges.

In 1850 there were in the United States 383 factories, employing 1,733 persons and producing $3,040,671 worth of goods, with an investment of $1,035,551. By 1900 the number of establishments had grown to 4,297, with a capital of $35,155,361, employing 33,583 persons, paying in wages $10,867,687, and turning out $81,290,543 worth of goods. Ten years later the value of the output was $134,795,000.

In 1884 the National Confectioners' Association of the United States was formed by leading candy manufacturers. One of its stated purposes is "to advance the standard of confectionery in all practicable ways, and absolutely to prevent harmful adulterations." In most states the sale of candy containing harmful ingredients is forbidden by law.

Confederacy, United Daughters of the. -This organization was organized at Nashville, Tennessee, on September 10, 1894, with a membership of 90,000 in its 3,000 chapters. It is composed of the widows, wives, or female descendants of military or civil workers under the Confederacy. Its objects are the unification of the womanhood of the South, and the preservation of objects and data of historical interest. Confederate Flags:

Captured, to be presented to Congress, 3309.

Return of Union and, to respective States recommended, 5163. Proposition withdrawn, 5164. Confederate Soldiers, proposed national care of graves, 7006.

President Wilson's speech at dedication of monument to, at Arlington, 7948.

Confederate Soldiers' Homes. (See Soldiers' Homes.)

Confederate States.-A government organ ized in February, 1861, by the states of South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas. Later Arkansas, North Carolina, Virginia, and Tennessee seceded from the Union and joined the Confederacy. The provisional Congress met at Montgomery, Ala., Feb. 4, 1861, and adopted a provisional constitution February 8. Jefferson Davis was elected provisional president and Alexander H. Stephens provisional vice-president. Later a permanent government was organized. permanent constitution was adopted March 11, 1861. Mr. Davis and Mr. Stephens were elected president and vice-president, respectively, and they were inaugurated Feb. 22, 1862, at Richmond, Va., which was made the permanent seat of govern ment.

A

The history of the Confederate States is almost entirely confined to a history of the Civil War. The United States Government denied the right of any state to secede from the Union, refused to recog nize the Confederate States as anything more than rebellious members of the Union, and immediately took measures to bring them into subjection The Confederate States were granted belligerent rights by most of the maritime nations, but their Independence was recognized by none (pages 3327, 3565). Money was obtained by the issue of treasury notes and by loans on cotton. After a war of four years the gov ernment of the Confederate States prac tically came to an end with the surrender of Gen. Lee at Appomattox, April 9, 1865.

Confederate Cabinet.-The Confederate
States had a cabinet composed of the heads
of executive departments, similar to the
United States Government and created for
like purposes. The heads of the depart-
ments exercised similar powers and were
clothed with duties and responsibilities cor-
responding to those of Cabinet officers in
the United States. The President was em-
powered to remove members of his cabi-
net. Congress was authorized to provide
for the admission of cabinet officers to a
seat in either house, with the privilege of
participating in debates pertaining to their
department. This provision remained in-
operative, as the congress failed to pro-
vide the appropriate legislation. The sec
retaries of state were Robert Toombs, of
Georgia, Robert M. T. Hunter, of Virgin-
fa, and Judah P. Benjamin, of Louisiana;
of the treasury, Charles G. Memminger and
George A. Trenholm, of South Carolina; of
war, L. Pope Walker, of Alabama, Judah
P. Benjamin, of Louisiana, George W. Ran-
dolph, of Virginia, James A. Seddon, of
Virginia, and John C. Breckinridge, of Ken-
tucky; of the navy, Stephen R. Mallory,
of Florida: postmaster-general, John H.
Reagan, of Texas; attorneys-general, Judah
P. Benjamin, of Louisiana, Thomas Bragg,
of North Carolina, Thomas H. Watts, of
George Davis, of North
Alabama, and
Carolina. The last member of this cabi-
net, John H. Reagan, died at Palestine,
Texas, on March 6, 1905.

Confederate Congress.-The provisional
congress of the seceding southern states
met at Montgomery, Ala., Feb. 4, 1861.
The gov
Two sessions were held here.
ernment removed to Richmond, Va., May
24, 1861. The last two sessions were held
in the latter city, final adjournment tak-
The first Con-
ing place Feb. 17, 1862.

federate Congress held four sessions be-
tween Feb. 18, 1862, and Feb. 18, 1864,
to organize the Confederacy, frame a con-
stitution, and devise means for carrying
on the war. It consisted of twenty-four
senators and about one hundred represent-
atives. The second Confederate Congress
had two sessions between May 2, 1864, and
March 18, 1865.

Confederate Constitution.-The constitu-
tution adopted by the Confederate States
of America at Montgomery, Ala. A pro-
visional congress, composed of delegates
from the seceding states, met in that city
Feb. 4, 1861, and on the 8th adopted
a provisional or temporary constitution.
March 11 they agreed upon a permanent
constitution, which was afterward ratified
by all the seceding states.

It was based

upon that of the United States, with the
following chief exceptions: It recognized
the principle of state sovereignty and the
protection of slavery in all new territories;
it prohibited internal improvements at fed-
eral expense and contained a prohibition
against laying any duties on imports "to
promote or foster any branch of indus-
try"; new states were to be admitted by
a vote of the states; state legislatures
could impeach Confederate officers acting
within their jurisdiction; the president
was to be elected for a term of six years
and was ineligible for re-election; the ap-
was lim-
propriating power of congress
ited, and the right of debate in congress
was extended to heads of departments.
Commissioners to Europe.-There
sent abroad to secure assistance and co-op-
eration in Europe William L. Yancey and
James M. Mason to the Court of St. James,
John Slidell to Paris, Pierre A. Rost to
Madrid. A. Dudley Mann to Brussels, and
L. Q. C. Lamar to St. Petersburg, although

were

The

each made visits to other capitals.
arrest of Mason and Slidell aboard a Brit
Ish steamer and their subsequent release
upon demand of Great Britain points to the
probability of intervention by that power
in behalf of the Confederate States.
Confederate States (see also Confeder-

ate Constitution; Reconstruction;
Restoration; Secession; Slavery;
Southern States; Civil War):
Acts for admission of certain South-
ern States vetoed, 3846, 3848.
Acts to provide for more efficient
government of rebel states vetoed.
(See Reconstruction.)

Agents of, abroad, suits instituted in
English courts against, 3661.
Aid furnished to, by Great Britain.
(See Alabama claims.)
Belligerent rights accorded, by for-
eign powers discussed, 3259, 3327,
3565.

Recognition and aid from foreign

powers invoked by, 3221, 3246.
Blockade of ports of. (See Block-
ades.)

Circuit courts to be re-established in,
recommendations regarding, 3556.
Correspondence regarding, referred
to, 3576.

Claims against citizens of, and
means of collecting discussed, 3251.
Commercial intercourse with, prohib
ited, 3238, 3366, 3483.

Restrictions on, removed from cer-
tain ports, 3290, 3310, 3372, 3375,
3417, 3431, 3482, 3507, 3515, 3524,
3529, 3531, 3537.

Constitution of. (See Confederate
Constitution.)

Courts of justice for, recommended by
President Lincoln, 3251.

Direct tax, collection of, referred to,
3589.

Envoys of, sent to France and Great
Britain. (See Mason and Slidell.)
Executive departments of, historical
statement of Gen. Sherman con-
cerning public policy of, referred
to, 4850.
Flags of-

Captured, to be presented to Con-
gress, 3381.

Return of, to respective States, rec-
ommended, 5163.

Proposition withdrawn, 5164.
Government employees assisting in
rendition of public honors to rebel
living or dead, referred to, 3591.
Government of, first located at Mont-
gomery, Ala., 3225.

Transfer of, to Richmond, Va.,
3225.

Governments to be re-established in-
Act to guarantee republican form

of government to states whose

Joint resolution excluding electoral
votes of states lately in rebellion,
vetoed, 3849.

Policy of President of United States
toward, referred to, 3667.
President of. (See Davis, Jefferson.)
Products of, authority given to pur-
chase, 3441.

Rebel debt, referred to, 3583, 3588.
Reconstruction of. (See Reconstruc-
tion.)

Restoration of. (See Restoration.)
Secretary of War of. (See Seddon,
James A.)

Union and Confederate flags, return

of, to respective States recommended, 5163.

Proposition withdrawn, 5164. Confederate Veterans. (See United Confederate Veterans.) Confederate Veterans, United. (See United Confederate Veterans.) Confederate Veterans, United Sons of. -This organization was formed in Richmond in 1896 for charitable, historical and social purposes. It is composed of male descendants of men who served the Confederacy actively during the Civil War. Confederation, Articles of.-The Second Continental Congress appointed on June 11, 1776, a committee to draw up Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union. This committee presented a draft to Congress July 12, 1776. Nov. 15, 1777, they were adopted with amendments as "Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union between the States." July 9, 1778, the Articles were signed by delegates from eight states. March 1, 1781, the delegates from Maryland also signed, and on the same date the final ratification was ordered by Congress. The original is indorsed: "Act of Confederation of the United States of America." These Articles provided for a single House of Congress with power to raise money by requisition on the states. Ratification of the articles by all the states was necessary, and they could not be amended save by the consent of every state. They did not operate on individuals and could not command respect abroad or enforce order at home. After numerous futile attempts to amend them a convention, following the suggestion of the Virginia and Maryland Doundary commissioners, was called at Annapolis, Md., in 1786, which in turn called a convention at Philadelphia in 1787. The last-named body rejected the Articles of Confederation and framed instead the present Constitution, which, after its ratification by nine states, became the supreme law of the land (page 5).

Confederation, Articles of, 5.
Signers of, 13.

Congo Conference, at Berlin, referred
to, 4823, 4855, 4865, 4915.
Congo Free State.-A dependency of Bel-
gium in the heart of Africa. It extends
from 5° 30' north of the equator to about
12° south, and from the central lake re-
glon north and west to the Congo River.
The northwest boundary follows that river
to its mouth, which provides an outlet to
the Atlantic Ocean. The exact boundaries
were defined by the neutrality declarations
of August, 1885, and December, 1894, after
treaties with Great Britain, Germany,
France and Portugal. The country has ac-
cess to the Nile at the Lado enclave, of
which that river forms the eastern bound-
ary. The area of the country is estimated
at more than 900,000 square miles, and the
inhabitants at 20,000,000. The European
population, Jan. 1, 1908, numbered 2,943,
including forty-seven Americans. The
state had its origin in the companies formed
for trade and exploration in that region.

The African International Association, founded in 1877, sent Henry M. Stanley on an expedition up the Congo River to estab lish trading posts and report on the possi bilities of travel and transportation. After Stanley's return the Comité d'Etudes du Haut Congo was formed under the auspices of Leopold II, King of Belgium, and in 1879 this became the International Association of the Congo. This organization again sent Stanley up the great river. He and his men built roads, founded trading stations and made more than 400 treaties with native chiefs, conveying the sover eignty of these chiefs to the International Association of the Congo. The association then appealed to the Powers of the world for permission to combine these numerous Sovereignties into one independent state. The United States was the first country to recognize the International Association of the Congo as a sovereign independent power, under the name of the Congo Free State. This was done in accordance with the report of the Committee on Foreign Relations of the Forty-eighth Congress, which reported that the acts of the native chiefs were clearly within their rights and that the association could lawfully accept them (pages 4823, 4914). Within a year Austria, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Russia, Spain, and Sweden followed the example of the United States.

A general act of the International Congo Conference, held at Berlin in 1885, established freedom of trade in the basin of the Congo, declared absolutely free the navigation of the Congo, its tributaries and the lakes and canals connected with it, laid down rules for the protection of the natives and the suppression of the slave trade, and imposed upon the powers which signed the act the obligation to accept the mediation of one or more friendly governments should any serious trouble arise in the Congo basin. The United States declined to ratify this act. on the ground that such action imposed upon it international obligations at variance with its traditional polfey. The Conference placed the state under the sovereignty of King Leopold II of Belgium, on the basis of personal union with Belgium, though perpetually neutral and free to the trade of all nations, and guaranteed equality of treatment to all settlers of whatever nationality. By a will dated Aug. 2, 1889, Leopold bequeathed to Belgium all his sovereign rights in the