Adobe State.-A nickname for New Mex- ico (q. v.). (See also States.) Adriatic Sea, islands in, disposition of, discussed, 8704, 8707.
Adulterated Foods, regulation of inter- state traffic in, 7012.
Ad Valorem Duty. -Duty on imported goods, based on the value thereof. Aeronautics.-The science of navigating the air has an authentic history dating back to A. D. 67. The free flying balloon or aerostat is a spherical bag filled with gas whose specific gravity is lighter than the air near the surface of the earth; it can- not be steered, and is at the mercy of the air currents.
A dirigible balloon has an elongated en- velope, and is equipped with a motor, pro- pellers and a rudder, and can be steered in a moderate wind.
Flying machines which are not lifted in- to the air by gas bags are generally known as aeroplanes. They are respectively class- ified as monoplanes, biplanes, triplanes, etc., according as they consist of one or a num- ber of plane surfaces.
The French army, in a battle with the Austrians at Mauberge, June 13, 1794, used an aerial vessel for reconnoitering the posi tion of the enemy, and balloons were used during the civil war in the United States and by the French at the siege of Paris.
Experiments with plane surfaces driven at high speed were first successful in 1843, when the English inventor Henson flew the first aeroplane. In America the pion- eers in mechanical flight were Octave Chanute, of Chicago, and A. M. Herring.
The first substantial advance in flying machines was made by Lilienthal in Ger- many, in the seventies and eighties. His researches, followed by practical demonstra- tion of aeroplanes, have formed the basis of all subsequent achievement. Professor Langley, of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, began experimenting in 1885, and flew across the Potomac River in 1896. The Wright brothers, Wilbur and Orville, following the lines of Langley and Lilien- thal, made their first flights under motor power in 1903. July 4, 1908, Glenn H. Curtiss flew in a biplane at the rate of forty miles an hour.
In the earlier machines, the pilot's legs dangled below the wings, and the many wires which braced the wings cut the air in such a manner as to cause many cross-cur- rents. The newer machines have the parts enclosed as far as possible in a boat-like body. There is often more than one pro- peller.
A modern plane represents about 4,000 hours of work for its construction. The frame is usually made of mild steel or of spruce, which for an equal weight has al- most three times the strength of steel. The wings are of linen covered with four or five coats of varnish, cotton and silk proving for this purpose less durable than linen.
On May 15, 1918, mail service by aero- plane was inaugurated between New York and Washington, with stops at Philadelphia. The flying time between New York and Philadelphia was scheduled at one hour and between Philadelphia and Washington at two hours. The service was then extended to other cities.
As had been foreseen, the development of the aeroplane practically revolutionized the practice of warfare in the World War.
The complete eclipse of these figures by later, if unofficial, figures may be under- stood by mention of the facts that as long ago (from the standpoint of the develop- ment of aviation) as 1916 a distance of 807 miles was attained and a height of 24,408 feet. In 1917, a distance of 920 miles was attained.
In May, 1919, an airplane of the United States Navy, the NC-4. crossed the Atlantic Ocean, making a landing en route at the Azores Islands. The start was from Rock- away Beach, New York; then to Chatham. where it was forced to descend; then to Halifax; then to Trepassey; then across the ocean to the Azores, a flight of 15 hours: then to Ponta Delgada. Portugal, ending the flight at Plymouth, England. The plane was commanded by A. C. Read, and piloted by E. F. Stone and W. Hilton, and was the only one of the four planes of the Navy attempt- ing the flight to accomplish it. A string of destroyers of the Navy was stationed along the path mapped out for the aviators from Canada to Portugal.
In June, 1919, Captain Alcock and Lieu- tenant Brown, of Great Britain, flew with- out stop, and without the protection of a string of destroyers, directly across the Atlantic Ocean from Halifax to Ireland. A previous attempt at such a flight. made by Harry Hawker and M. Grieve in May, 1919. had come to grief in mid-ocean. Alcock and Brown made their distance of 1,980 miles in 16 hours and 12 minutes.
In the fall of 1919, a number of United States Army planes flew across the country from ocean to ocean, and then returned to their starting point, completing a round trip.
Other records of 1919 included an altitude record of 34,600 feet, a duration record of 20 hours, a sustained speed of 148 miles an hour, and a temporary speed of 220 miles an hour.
Aeronautics, Director of Military, cre- ated and duties assigned, 8514, 8516. Aeroplane.-An airship which is heavier than air, as distinguished from lighter-than- air machines, such as balloons or Zeppelins (q. v.). See also Aeronautics. Aeroplane, American vessel attacked by, 8062.
Aero Squadron, for army, 8106.
Afghanistan (called Khorassan by the natives) is an independent Asiatic state on the northwest frontier of India. Its area is estimated at 246,000 English square miles and its population at 6,000. 000. It is bounded on the west by Per- sia, on the south by British Baluchistan, on the north by Russia in Asia, and on the east by the Punjaub and northwest Frontier Provinces of British India.
Ethnography.-The population is mixed. The Afghans (or Duranis) have been pre dominant since 1747, especially in Kanda.
bar. Next came the Ghilzais (military and commercial) and the Tajiks (aborigi nals, who are cultivators or retail trad ers). On the Indo-Afghan frontier are many Pathan tribes, who are much influ- enced by the mullahs. All are Sunni Mo- hammedans, except the Hazaras and Kizil- bashes, who belong to the Shiite sect. The national tongue is Pushtu. Recently steps have been taken to develop educa- tion, hitherto controlled by the mullahs.
Physical Features.-Mountains, chief among which are the Hindu Kush, cover three-fourths of the country, the eleva- tion being generally over 4,000 feet. There are three great river basins, the Oxus, the Helmand, and the Kabul. The climate is dry, with extreme temperatures in winter and summer.
Government.-Amir of Afghanistan and of its Dependencies, Habibuliah Khan ("Lamp of the National Religion") suc- ceeded his father (Abdurrahan Khan) Oct. 3, 1901. The Amir (Abdur Rah- man Khan) established a strong central government and introduced a regular_civil and military organization, including officers for public works, posts, police, finance and trade, etc. For the purposes of local gov ernment, the country is divided into six provinces, Kabul, Kandahar, Herat, Turk- estan, Farrar and Badakshan (with Ka- fristan and Wakhan), which are under governors (hakim), with subordinate no- bles and judges, police and revenue offi- cers. The Afghan laws are Islamic sacred laws, tribal laws, and those of the Amir, who is the Court of Appeal. The law is bulky and the criminal law severe.
Foreign Relations.-By agreement with the Amir, the "buffer State" of Afghan- istan has no foreign relations with any Power except the Government of India. The modern history of Afghanistan dates from 1881, when Abdurrahan was recog nized as ruler. The British Government engaged to preserve the safety and integ- rity of Afghanistan against any unpro- voked attack, provided that the Amir acted as a friend and ally. By the Anglo-Rus- sian convention of August, 1907, Russia declared Afghanistan outside the Russian sphere of influence, and engaged to duct all her political relations with Af- ghanistan through Great Britain, and that Great Britain and Russia should enjoy equality of commercial facilities.
Production and Industry and Commerce.— Most of the people are industrious cultl- vators, and the country has become fairly settled, peaceful and prosperous. There is excellent irrigation and all profitable soil is utilized. There are generally two crops a year, one of wheat (the staple food), barley, or lentils; the other of rice, millet, maize and dal, while the country is rich in fruits. Sheep and transport animals are bred. The manufactures include silk, woolen and hair cloths, and carpets. Salt, silver, copper, coal, iron, lead, rubies and gold are found. The exports to India are mainly fruits and nuts, raw wool, and ghi; while the imports therefrom are chief- ly cotton yarn and piece goods, metals, leather goods, tea and sugar. The Af- ghan customs dutles are heavy. There is a large export of wool to Persia and Rus- sla, cotton and silk goods, sugar, etc., being taken in exchange.
Transportation.-The roads are generally unsuitable for wheeled traffic, but are be Ing improved. Goods are conveyed by pack-animals. The chlef trade routes to india are the Khaibar Pass, from Kabul
to Peshawar (191 miles), along which a motor service has been established by the Amir, and the road from Kandahar to Quetta (125 miles). The Sind-Pishin railway terminates at Chaman, on the frontier, 65 miles from Kandahar, from which a fine road of 318 miles runs to Kabul.
Towns.-Capital, Kabul, (about 180.000). The chief commercial center is Kandahar (40,000). (See also Asia.)
Afognak Island (in Gulf of Alaska, separated from Alaskan Peninsula by Shelikof Strait), lands in, set apart as public reservation by proclama tion, 5795.
Africa. The area of Africa is 12 mil- lion square miles, about three times that of Europe. Its extreme longitudes are 17° W. at Cape Verde and 51° E. at Cape Guardafui. The extreme latitudes are Cape Blanco in 37° N. and Cape Agulhas in 35° S., at a distance of about 5,000 miles. It is surrounded by seas on all sides, except in the narrow isthmus through which is cut the Suez Canal, and may be considered as a great peninsula of the Eurasian continent.
The area and estimated population of Af- rica, according to its political subdivisions, are as follows:
Egypt and Sudan.. 4,209,000 57,900,000 French, including Mo-
rocco....
Belgian Portuguese Italian Spanish Independent
85,000 236,000 415,000 9,250,000
except the Arias, though isolated peaks rise to a considerable elevation in Abys- sinia, in East Africa (Kenya, Kiliman- jaro and Ruwenzori), and in West Africa (Kamerun Peak). If an irregular line is drawn from a point on the West Coast, a little south of the Equator, to a point near the middle of the Red Sea, Africa can be divided into two nearly equal parts which differ considerably in character. The northwestern part comprises two re- gions of comparative lowland separated by the Atlas and the plateaus of Tibesti and Tasili. The southeastern part con- sists of great masses of highlands and pla- teaus broken up by river valleys. The rivers of Africa drain into the Atlantic, the Mediterranean, and the Indian Ocean. Both the Senegal and Gambia are navi- gable for some distance in the rainy sea- son. The most important river which flows into the Gulf of Guinea is the Niger. The Congo rises in the plateau southwest of Lake Tanganyika. From Stanley Falls to Stanley Pool, a broad, navigable river flows for 1,000 miles. As these are them- selves great rivers, an enormous amount of water is carried down to the mouth. ing to the depth of the ocean, the sedi- ment deposited does not r ach the surface in the form of a delta, but forms subma- rine ridges 5,000 feet in height for over 300 miles on each side of its ocean chan- nel. The Orange River rises in the Drak- ensberg Mountains not far from the East Coast and receives the Vaal and other large rivers. The Nile rises in the south of Victoria Nyanza, the largest lake in Af- rica, of about the area of Scotland, and breaks through the plateau to the north by the Murchison Falls into the Albert Nyanza, some 1,600 feet below the level of the larger lake. Owing to the flat char- acter of the country and the large amount of water which has no sufficient outlet, an extensive swamp vegetation, the "sudd," has been formed in this part of its course. At Khartum it receives the Blue Nile, which, with the other Abyssinian rivers, is largely the source of the Nile floods, due to the monsoon ains of the Abyssin- ian Plateau, and further north the At- bara, which brings down the alluvium which has helped to fertilize Egypt. From this point it receives no permanent tribu- taries and navigation is hindered by six cataracts, of which the first is at Assuan. The extensive delta formed north of Cairo, where the Nile leaves its long narrow val ley, is the most fertile area in North Af rica. Between the Nile and Tunis the Sahara reaches the Mediterranean and there are no permanent streams. The Sa- hara is partly occupied by plateaus and mountains and partly by steppes and des- erts which contain oases. Africa is cut by the Equator nearly halfway between its extreme points, so that rather more than three-quarters of the continent lies with- in the Tropics and receives the sun's rays vertically at least once a year. Ex- cept on the more lofty mountains, Africa has no areas with cold winters, where the temperature is 32° F. or less for one month, or cool summers, which are less than 50° F. in any month. It is, therefore, typical generally of tropical rather than temperate conditions, in which there is no resting season for vegetation, except in consequence of want of rain.
Ethnography.-Four main groups of na- tive races may be distinguished in Africa, the Semitic and Hamitic, belonging to the Caucasic type in the north, the Negro, and the Hottentot and Bushmen in the south.
Political Divisions.-Because of the com- parative backwardness of the civilization of Africa most of that continent has been oc- cupied by European nations; and the only independent nations there at present are Abyssinia and Liberia. Egypt and Mo- rocco are theoretically independent, but in actuality the former, along with Anglo- Egyptian Sudan, is controlled by Great Britain and the latter by France and Spain. The Union of South Africa, although nomi- nally a part of the British Empire, enjoys self-government nearly corresponding to independence.
The Powers with the most extensive pos- sessions in Africa are Great Britain and France. Each of them has a solid block of territory, with certain non-contiguous col- onies. The solid block of British territory extends from the Mediterranean to the Cape of Good Hope. Roughly, it takes in the southern end of the continent, then swings northwestward to the east coast along the Indian Ocean and then proceeds almost due north through the Sudan and Egypt. The great solid block of French territory lies in the northwest of Africa. Its centre is the Sahara Desert, with Algeria on the north, a number of colonies comprising French West Africa along the Atlantic seaboard, and cutting through the centre of Africa, between Nigeria and Belgian Congo (French Equatorial Africa) to extend along the At- lantic below the equator.
BRITISH POSSESSIONS comprise the Union of South Africa and Southwest Af- rica, held by it under mandate of the League of Nations, Bechuanaland, Basutoland. Rho- desia, Swaziland, Nyasaland, Tanganyika (under mandate), Uganda, British Kamerun (under mandate), Kenya, Egypt and Anglo- Egyptian Sudan, Gambla, British Togoland (under mandate), Sierra Leone, Gold Coast, Nigeria, Somaliland and the islands men- tioned above.
Southwest Africa is the former German Southwest Africa, captured by British South African forces during the World War and assigned by the League of Nations to the Union of South Africa under a mandate. It lies between Angola on the north and the Union of South Africa (Cape Province) on the south and between the Atlantic on the west and Rhodesia on the east. It was ac- quired by Germany in the last two decades of the nineteenth century. The protectorate, with an area of 322,400 square miles, 1s largely barren, with a population of only 190,000 natives, mostly in the north, and 20,000 Europeans. The capital is Windhuk. The output of the diamond mines is valu- able, and copper, tin and marble also are worked. Southwest Africa is essentially a stock-raising country and there is practi cally no agriculture.
Bechuanaland lies east of Southwest Af- rica, between the Molopo River on the south and the Zambesi on the north. Its area is about 275,000 square miles, with a popula- tion of some 130,000 natives and 5,000 Euro- peans. The territory was declared within the British sphere in 1885. The country is used chiefly for grazing, the aridity prevent- ing much agriculture. Maize and kaffir corn, however, are raised to a slight extent. The telegraph and railroad proceeding northward from the Cape of Good Hope traverse the colony.
Basutoland is a plateau northeast of the Cape of Good Hope Province of the Union of South Africa, with an area of 11,716 square miles and a population of some 425,- 000 natives and 3,000 Europeans. It was brought under the British Crown in 1884. Much grain is raised, and the excellent grasses have led to much cattle-raising also. Recent foreign trade has been above $5,000,- 000 annually. The capital is Maseru.
Swaziland is at the southeastern corner of the Transvaal. It has an area of 6,678 square miles and a population of about 105,- 000, of whom about 2,000 are Europeans. There is much grazing of cattle, especially in the winter. The staple agricultural prod- uct is maize, but other crops also are grown in small quantities. Tin is the only mineral mined.
Tanganyika Territory is the former Ger- man East Africa, acquired by Germany in 1885-1890, occupied by Allied troops in 1915-1918 and administered by the British Empire under mandate from the League of Nations after the World War, with a section of the western border administered by Bel- glum. The area is about 365,000 square miles and the population, around 3,500,000. The country is fertile and there is much agriculture as well as cattle-raising. There are a number of plantations of cocoa-palms, coffee, caoutchouc, sugar and cotton. Sisal and other fibre plants also are cultivated. There are several railroads, and good po- tential harbors along the coast. The forests are especially valuable. There have been found many traces of mineral deposits and valuable stones, especially garnets. In a recent year, the foreign trade amounted to more than $12,000,000, the chief exports in order of value being sisal, hides, coffee, copra, grain and cotton. The capital is Dar-es-Salaam.
Kenya Colony is the former East Africa Protectorate, and includes a strip of land leased from the Sultan of Zanzibar. area is about 246,000 square miles, and the population, about 2,800,000. Mombasa, the largest town, with a population of 30,000, has an excellent harbor. The capital is Nairobi (15,000). The agricultural products of the lowlands are chiefly tropical, includ- ing rice, maize, cocoanuts, and in the high- lands practically all crops of the temperate zones are grown. Sisal hemp, rubber and cotton are cultivated. The area under wheat and maize is rapidly extending and there are many coffee plantations. Ostrich farm- ing is an established industry and dairying is a profitable concomitant of the stock- raising. The forests, especially in the high- lands, are very valuable, but few minerals have been found. There are more than 600 miles of railway and 3,500 miles of tele- graph, and the colony is well provided with roads. In a recent year, the foreign trade, including that of Uganda and the Congo, was valued at more than $30,000,000, the chief export being cotton (chiefly from Uganda), followed by coffee, carbonate of soda and fibres.
Gambia fell under British control in the latter part of the eighteenth century. It has an area of 4,134 square miles, with a population of 250,000. Capital, Bathurst. In a recent year, the foreign trade, includ-
ing specie, was valued at more than $8,500,- 000. The principal export is ground nuts.
Nigeria, formerly owned by the Royal Niger Company, was declared under British protection in 1884-7, and taken over by the Crown in the following years. Lagos is the capital, the whole territory being divided into the Northern and the Southern Prov. inces. The total area is about 332,000 square miles, with a population of some 17,500,000. The chief products are palm-oil and -kernels, rubber, ground-nuts, shea-butter, ivory, hides, live stock, ostrich feathers, capsicums, cotton, cocoa, coffee. Tobacco is grown and there are rubber plantations. Mahogany is exported. The deposits of tin are valuable and iron, lead and coal also are very worked. There are about 1,200 miles of rail- way, several thousand miles of telegraph, about 150 post-offices. There are a number of ports, and the many navigable streams form the chief method of transport, al- though much of the considerable trade in the north is done by means of caravans. In a recent year the foreign trade, includ- ing specie, was valued at more than $125,- 000,000, the chief exports, in order of value, being palm-kernels and oil, tin ore, hides and skins, cocoa, ground-nuts and raw cotton.
Somaliland or Somali Coast was admin- istered by the Government of India after 1884, when Egyptian control ceased. The area is about 68,000 square miles and the population, chiefly Mohammedan and no- madic, about 300,000. The chief town is Berbera, with a population of about 30,000. In a recent year, the foreign trade amounted to about $3,500,000, the chief exports being hides and skins, gum and resin, and sheep and cattle.
Zanzibar was declared a British protec- torate in 1890. The chief industry is the clove, of which Zanzibar and Pemba furnish most of the world's supply, followed by the cocoanut and the copra. In a recent year, the foreign trade, including bullion and specie, was valued at slightly more than $20,000,000.
British Togoland represents the western third of the former German colony of Togo- land, acquired by Germany in 1884 and occupied by the Allies in the World War. It has an area of about 12,500 square miles and a population of about 300,000. Eco- nomic conditions are similar to those of French Togoland (see below).
British Kamerun is a western strip of Kamerun, held by mandate of the League of Nations. The area is about 30,000 square miles and the population, about 400,000. Chief exports-palm products, rubber, ivory,
Nyasaland lles between Northern Rhodesia and Lake Nyasa, whence it extends toward the Zambesi. It has an area of 39,573 square miles and an estimated population of some 1,200,000. There is much cultiva- tion and exportation of coffee, tobacco, cot- ton and tea. There is also much cattle- raising. In a recent year, exclusive of specie and transit trade, the exports were valued at $2,000,000 and the imports at $2,500,000. There is a railroad about 200 miles long, and a telegraph line connecting with Cape Town northward to Tanganyika passes through the protectorate.
Union of South Africa.
St. Helena. FRENCH POSSESSIONS.-The French possessions in Africa comprise Algeria, Tu- nis, Morocco, French Equatorial Africa, French Togoland (under mandate from the League of Nations), French Somali Coast, French West Africa and the Sahara, Mada- gascar and the other islands mentioned above, and Kamerun (under mandate from the League of Nations).
Kamerun became a German protectorate in 1884. In 1911, it was increased by 107,- 270 square miles ceded by France from French Congo as a result of German con- cessions to France in Morocco. During the World War, it was occupied by French and British troops and after the war given to France under a mandate from the League of Nations, with the exception of a strip along the northern boundary mandated to Great Britain, about 30,000 square miles in area. The area of French Kamerun is 273,- 759 square miles, with a population esti- mated at 3,500,000. In a recent year, the foreign trade amounted to about $4,000,000. The principal products and exports are cof- fee, tobacco, palm-oil, ivory, cacao, rubber. There are about 360 miles of railway and almost as many of good roads. The chief town is Duala.
Ivory Coast was claimed by France as early as 1843, but was not occupied until 1883. It has an area of about 122.000 square miles and a population of some 1,400,000. The natives grow maize, rice and fruits and Europeans cultivate coffee and cocoa plantations. Rubber and mahogany also are collected. In a recent year, the foreign trade was valued at about $10,000,- 000, the chief exports in order of value being palm-oil and -kernels, mahogany, co- coa, rubber and coffee.
French Sudan is composed of the larger part of the territory formerly known as Upper Senegal-Niger. It has an area of about 617,600 square miles and a popula- tion of 2,200,000. The chief agricultural products are ground-nuts, rubber, maize, millet, rice and cotton. There is much cattle-raising.
Upper Volta Colony is the southern sec- tion of the former Upper Senegal-Niger ter- ritory. It has an area of about 154,400 square miles and a population of about 3,000,000.
Mauritania lies to the northwest of the Sahara Desert, with an area of about 345,- 000 square miles and a population of 255,- 000, chiefly Moorish Mussulmans.
French Togoland represents about two- thirds of the former German colony of Togo- land, acquired by Germany in 1884 and occupied by Allied forces during the World War. The western third, adjoining the Gold Coast, was assigned to Great Britain. The French territory has an area of 20,072 square miles and a population of 750,000. The climate is moist and unhealthful, but there are rich deposits of iron ore and other minerals. The chief exports are сосов, copra and palm-oil products, but in addition the natives raise a little maize and rice and
BELGIAN POSSESSIONS comprise the large stretch of territory known as Belgian Congo and in addition à southwestern por- tion of the former German territory of Ger- man East Africa, administered under man- date from the League of Nations. (See Tanganyika, above, Congo Free State and Belgium.)
PORTUGUESE POSSESSIONS comprise Angola (Portuguese West Africa), Mozam- bique (Portuguese East Africa), Portuguese Guinea and the islands mentioned above.
Angola has belonged to the Portuguese since 1575. It has an area of about 485,000 square miles and a population of some 2,200,000. In a recent year, the foreign trade was valued at about $20,000,000. The chief exports are coffee, rubber and dried fish, but there is also trade in oils, wax, cocoanuts, ivory. Tobacco and cotton also are grown, and asphalt and petroleum are worked. There are other valuable mineral deposits.
For the other possessions, see Portugal.
SPANISH POSSESSIONS comprise Rio de Oro, Spanish Guinea, Spanish Morocco and the islands mentioned above. (See Spain and Morocco.)
ITALIAN POSSESSIONS comprise Eri- trea, Italian Somaliland, Tripoli and Cyre- naica (Libia). (See the articles under these headings.)
INDEPENDENT NATIONS are Abyssinia and Liberia (q.v.). Africa:
Agents sent to, to receive slaves taken from vessels, 633.
Citizens of United States must not
violate rights of inhabitants of, 396. German colonies in, mandatory system for, 8679.
Natives of, in slavery. (See African Slave Trade.)
Naval force of United States sta- tioned on coast of, referred to, 2173, 3071. Repressing liquor trade in, sugges- tions made by Belgium, 6363, 6425. Slavery on coast of, 4160.
Vessels of United States seized on coast of, 1857, 3017.
Africa, The, attempted seizure of Mr. Fauchet by commander of, 3344. African Slave Trade.-Prior to the discov ery of America, negroes, like other savage races, either enslaved or put to death the captives taken in war. The deportation of the captives to the mines and plantations of the New World increased the value of the African and made slavery rather than death the prisoner's fate. This disposition
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