the

of captives also led many petty chiefs to
wage war for the prospective gain in hu-
man chattels. The aborigines of America
having proved too weak for the work re-
quired of them, the
possessed a large part of the African coast,
Portuguese, who
began the exportation of negroes, in which
they were imitated by other nations of the
Old World. Sir John Hawkins was the first
Englishman to engage in slave traffic. The
first importation of negro slaves was au-
thorized in 1517. Extreme cruelty and
inhuman treatment characterized
transportation. They were landed at Haiti
their
and Santo Domingo and placed in
mines. In 1619 a Dutch vessel brought a
cargo of slaves into the James River.
Twenty negroes were sold to Virginia
settlers. In 1713, by the treaty of Utrecht,
Great Britain obtained the contract for
supplying slaves to the Spanish West In-
dies. This stimulated the slave trade gen-
erally. Several of the Colonies attempted
to prohibit the importation of slaves, but
Great Britain forced the trade upon them.
Virginia passed several acts forbidding the
traffic, but they were vetoed by the Brit-
ish Government, as were also those passed
by Pennsylvania in 1712, 1714, and 1717,
and by Massachusetts in 1774.

Slavery was prohibited by Rhode Island
and Connecticut in 1774, and by all the
Colonies under the non-importation cove-
nant of Oct. 24, 1774, and forbidden by
nearly all the States during the Revolution.
The slave-trade question was an important
one in the formation of the Constitution.
The Southern States, except Virginia and
Maryland, Insisted that no
should be imposed upon the traffic.
restriction

A compromise was finally effected allow-
ing Congress to prohibit it after 1808.
act of March 22, 1794, prohibited the carry-
The
ing of slaves from one foreign country to
another by American citizens; that of May
10, 1800, allowed United States war ships
to seize vessels engaged in such traffic;
that of Feb. 28, 1803, prohibited the in-
troduction of slaves into States which had
forbidden slavery. In 1808 the importa-
tion of slaves into the United States was
forbidden. The acts of April 20, 1818, and
March 3, 1819, authorized the President to
send cruisers to the coast of Africa to
stop the slave trade. As no restrictions

were ever placed upon domestic slave trad-
Ing before its abolition in 1865, the surrepti-
tious trade in imported slaves was not en-
tirely given up until that time.

African Slave Trade. (See also Com-

promise of 1850; Kansas-Nebraska
Act; Missouri Compromise; Ne-
groes; Slavery.)

Abuses of United States flag referred
to, 2134.

Act for suppression of, referred to,
5621.

Agents sent to Africa to receive
slaves, 663.

American citizens engaged in, 2215.
Information regarding, requested,
2907.

Cargo of African negroes-

Captured on coast of Cuba, and re-
turn of to Africa, discussed, 3058,
3124, 3126.

Landed on coast of Georgia, re-

ferred to, 3065, 3069, 3086.
Stranded on coast of Florida, and
removal of, discussed, 987.

Laws for suppression of

Amendments recommended, 2553.
Should be more severe, 1903, 1931.
Liberation of slaves by authorities of
Nassau, New Providence, 2064.
Proposition to Great Britain to abol-
ish mixed courts created for sup-
pression of, 3989.

Treaty regarding, 4055.
Punishment for engaging in, should
be same as for piracy, 779, 812.
Referred to, 1755, 2064, 2173, 2202,
2219, 2268, 2587, 2630, 3015, 3071,
3121, 3185, 3413.

Removal of negroes-

Captured by American vessels, to

Liberia, recommended, 3058, 3124.
Captured on coast of Cuba, 3058,
3124, 3126.

Stranded on coast of Florida rec-

ommended, 967.

Seizure of slaves on board the En-
comium and Enterprise, 1499.
Suppression of and suggestions that

Great Britain be asked to discon-
tinue the naval force maintained
for its suppression, 3779.
Desired by Government, 631, 1836,

1930, 2082, 2215, 3086, 3254.
But interpolations into maritime
code not permitted, 1930.
Referred to, 649, 650, 651, 678, 827,
958, 1857, 2048, 2082, 2553, 3180.
Squadron kept on coast of Africa
for, 2173.

Treaty between five powers of Eu-
rope for, 2011.
Inquiry of Senate respecting,

and reply of President, 2068.
Protest of American minister to
France regarding, 2011, 2048,
2297.

Treaty with Great Britain regard-
ing, referred to, 810, 812, 819,

African Slave Trade

886, 2016, 2048, 2071, 2082, 3272,
3281, 3328, 3366, 3380, 4017.
Vessels transporting slaves should
be seized, 632, 783.

African Squadron, instruction to com-
manding officers of, referred to, 2173,
3071.

Agitator. A person who, either by speech
or action, endeavors to change existing con-
ditions. The term may be employed in a
complimentary sense as synonomous with
"reformer" (q. v.), but is often restricted to
a person who endeavors to disturb conditions
from ulterior or anti-constructive motives.

Agitators denounced by President-
Roosevelt, 7033.
Wilson, 8814.

Agricultural Census recommended, 5982.
Agricultural Colleges and Experiment

Stations. (See Agriculture, Depart-
ment of.)

Agricultural Credits. (See Agriculture.)
Agricultural Implements. -From the ear-
liest times and in all countries until the
beginning of the Nineteenth century agri-
culture was distinctly manual labor.
Horses and oxen were used for plowing and
harrowing, but the labor of planting, cul-
tivating and harvesting was all performed
by hand. Grain was sown broadcast by
hand, cut with a sickle, gathered with a
fork and thrashed out on the barn floor
with a club. Corn was cultivated with a
hoe and its husking was made a social
event of rural communities. By these
primitive methods the farmer was unable
to produce much of a surplus to exchange
for the fabrics of the cities or for export.
The only part of America where farming
proved a commercial success was in the
South, where slave labor was employed in
the cultivation of cotton and tobacco. The
invention of the cotton gin, though not
strictly a farm implement, made a com.
mercial crop of a plant theretofore of only
ordinary domestic value.

From the first turning of the soil to the
gathering of the crops American inventive
genius has lightened the labor and in-
creased the profits of agriculture so that
the farmers today enjoy a greater amount
of comfort and wealth than any other class
of citizens.

Prior to 1850 the manufacture of agri-
cultural implements could hardly be con-
sidered as more than a hand trade, and
in no sense as a factory industry. as the
term is at present understood. Ideas had
been evolved, and, on a small scale, exe-
cuted, which contained much that the im-
proved processes and facilities of the lat-
ter part of the century brought to complete
fruition. Implements were made in small
shops with an average capital of $2,674
per establishment. The evolution of the
manufacture from the small shops of the
blacksmith and wheelwright to the im
mense establishments of the present day
embodies all the phases of the develop-
ment of the modern factory system.
a large western plant 600 men, by the aid
of machinery, do the work that, without
machinery would require 2,145 men.

In

The McCormick reaper was first put on
the market as a successful machine for the
Larvest of 1845. In 1847 the exports of

wheat and flour jumped to $32,178,161,
about five times the average of the pre-
ceding forty years, and increased rapidly
to 1860. The wheat crop, which had not
kept pace with the growth of population
from 1839 to 1849, gained more than 70
per cent in the decade between 1849 and
1859, and from a total crop of 84,823,272
bushels in 1845 increased to nearly a bil-
lion bushels in 1915. Cyrus H. McCormick
inherited the idea of making Я grain
reaper from his father, who had patented
an imperfect revolving scythe in 1816.
The essential elements which made the
reaper finally successful were the reel, the
divider, the reciprocating knife, and the
platform. Later a self-raking attachment
took the place of the man who had raked
the grain by hand from the platform.

The Marsh harvesting machine had
toothed belts which carried the grain from
the platform over the master wheel to two
men who stood on a footboard and bound
the sheaves on tables attached to the
machine. By 1875 twine binding attach-
ments had been patented.

The automatic self binder, invented by
John F. Appleby, seems to have been the
culminating improvement made in grain
harvesting machines, and is used in one
form or another as an attachment to the
harvester to bind by far the largest part
of the grain harvested in this and other
countries. Now a million binders are in
use on American farms and a large export
business has grown up. Through the use
of American harvesting machines Argen-
tina, Australia and Russia have become
large exporters of wheat, and single car-
goes shipped to Europe contain more of
these machines than the entire output of
any European manufacturer in this line.
In Kansas, Nebraska and other Western
States, headers are used, which cut off the
stalk just below the head, elevate the
wheat into a wagon ready to be hauled to
the thrasher, and leave the straw standing.
In California, Oregon and Washington the
combined harvester carries a thrashing at-
tachment, which is operated by the trac
tion wheel, so that a wide swath is cut and
thrashed and delivered in bags as the
machine is drawn across the field by horses
or a traction engine.

The mowing machine, the corn planter
and the two-horse cultivator, distinctively
American inventions, have served the same
purpose in promoting the production of
corn and hay as the reaper in the cereal
fields. Farmers were unable to produce
live stock, poultry and dairy products on
a commercial scale until they had labor
saving machinery for the cheap production
of hay and corn.

The principal steps in the development
of the harvesting machine are recorded in
the Patent Office as follows:

Reapers-Harvester, handraker, 1855:
self-raker, 1856: dropper, 1861: adjustable
switch reel rakes, 1865, 1875, 1879 and
1884.

Harvester Binders-Cord knotter, 1853:
wire twister, 1856: straw braid twister.
1857; gleaner and binder, 1862; self-trip-
ping cord knotter, 1867: wire twister,
1868: automatic trip. 1870: straw looper,
1870 vibrating binder. 1875: low-down
binder, 1878: compressor automatic trip,
1879 low-down oblique delivery, 1884.

Agricultural Implements

1865; clover head stripper, 1877; bean
stalk puller, 1879.

Corn Harvesters-Cutter, 1844: ear
stripper, 1850; ear stripper, husker and
sheller, 1850; cutter and shocker, 1852,
1854, 1856; high and low cutter, 1859;
cutter and shocker, 1866; picker and
husker, 1867; picker, husker and shocker,
1869; cutter, husker and shocker, 1875.

Cotton Harvesters - Toothed picking
disks and cylinders, 1850; hand picker,
1855; brush stripper, 1859; exhaust flex-
ible pipe, 1859; fan blower, 1868; saw
and stripper brush, 1870; electric belt,
1870; picker stem, 1872; toothed cylinder,
1874, 1883; revolving picker stems, 1878,

1901.

Hemp and Flax Harvesters-Revolving
pulling drum and band, 1838; roller, 1852;
reciprocating, pulling jaw, 1863; stalk
puller, 1866; side delivery, 1870, 1871;
stalk cutter, 1872.

Combined Reapers and Thrashers-
Reaper and thrasher, 1836; thrasher, sep-
arator and sacker, 1846; head cutter and
side deliverer, 1849; harvester and
thrasher, 1877; steam harvester, 1879;
header, thrasher and separator, 1883.

Horse Rakes-Flopover, 1822; spring
tooth, 1839; dumping sulky, 1848; draft
dumping, 1850; self dumping, 1852; spring
tooth self dumping, 1856; draft dumping,
1856, 1859, 1866, 1876, 1884; drag dump-
ing, 1866, 1870.

Horse Hay Forks-Spiral fork, 1867;
harpoon, 1867, 1884, 1881; tilting, 1870;
grapple, 1880; handfork, 1882.

Hay Rackers and Loaders-1848, 1850,
1858, 1860, 1861, 1864, 1865, 1867, 1868,
1870, 1876, 1883.

Hay Tedders-1855, 1861, 1862, 1865,
1867, 1870, 1883.

Next to harvesting machines the thrash-
Ing machine is the most important feature
of the equipment of modern agriculture.
The ground hog" thrasher came into use
early in the nineteenth century. Thrash-
ing mills, with fanning and screening de-
vices, were set up in England in 1800, but
these were stationed at some central point,
and the grain had to be hauled to them.
The first portable thrashing machine with
cleaning devices was made by Hiram A.
and John A. Pitts, of Winthrop, Me., in
1830, and George Westinghouse began
making thrashing machines in Fonda, N. Y.,.
about 1840. He later removed to Sche-
nectady, N. Y., and patented a number of
useful improvements in separating and
cleaning devices. A notable improvement
is the wind stacker," by which the straw
is blown by a revolving fan through a
large steel pipe to the straw stack, thus
saving the labor of several men. Auto-
matic band cutting and feeding attach-
ments and automatic grain weighers have
also come into general use, and traction
engines to replace horses in the field have
gained new impetus from the use of the
Internal combustion engine and wider
knowledge of the auto truck.

The grain drill is a recent Implement
of economy on the farm. The first patent
for a force feed grain drill was issued to
Foster, Jessup & Brown, of Palmyra. N. Y.,
In 1851, and their general use came with
the use of commercial fertilizer.

Corn cultivators are made in a great
variety of forms, but the essential feature
of all is an arched axle which straddles the
row, is drawn by two horses, and has two
gangs, or frames, one on each side of the
row, which swing freely under direction of
Corn
the operator, who may ride or walk.
binders and pickers are also manufactured,
well as portable huskers and fodder
shredders. Power corn shellers have been
in use since 1860, and are indispensable
wherever corn is grown for shipment to
market. The first successful machine of
this type was invented by Augustus Adams,
of Sandwich, Ill.

as

The plow in primitive form antedates
history, and, while it appears to be a
simple implement, the improved American
plow of today is the product of slow evo-
lution, careful study and much mechanical
skill. Efforts at improvement have been
largely directed toward establishing upon
a mathematical basis the proper lines of
the moldboard which raises and turns the
furrow slice. President Thomas Jefferson
published his views on this subject in 1798.
Jethro Wood, of Scipio, N. Y., took out a
patent in 1819 for a plow with a mold-
board in three separate pieces, so they could
be replaced by new parts when worn.

Among the names that will ever be as-
sociated with the plow in America are John
Deere, pioneer inventor and manufacturer,
whose establishment at Moline, Ill., sup-
plied the West for many years, and James
Oliver, whose perfection of the chilled steel
plowshare was an important step in ad-
vanced manufacture.

The history of steam plowing dates from
the inventions of Fowler and Smith in
1854. The plows are in gangs of twelve
to eighteen and are drawn by traction
engines of from 40 to 80 horsepower.

Machinery for shelling, sorting, sifting
or grading according to size the various
vegetable and root crops forms an exten-
sive industry in itself.

Agricultural implements in general are
divided into four groups-those of culti
vation, seeding and planting, harvesting,
and seed separating. These groups in turn
are subdivided into numerous classes, as in-
dicated in the accompanying table. At the
census of 1849, 1,333 establishments were
reported as engaged in the manufacture of
agricultural implements, the number of
hands employed being 7,220, and the value
of their products amounted to $6,842,611.
In 1869 the number of factories had in-
creased to 2,076. These were compara-
tively small establishments, their aggregate
capital amounting to only $34,834,600, and
their output being valued at little more
than $52,000,000. In 1909 through com-
bining shops and capital the number of
establishments had fallen to 640, the capi-
tal had increased to $256,281,086, and the
value of the output to $146,329,268.

Of the 772 establishments engaged in the
industry in 1914, 86 were located in Illinois,
67 in Ohio, 61 in Wisconsin, 58 in New
York, 49 in Pennsylvania, 45 in California,
42 in Indiana, 40 each in Iowa and Michi-
gan, 35 in Minnesota, 27 in Missouri, 25 in
Tennessee, 22 each in North Carolina and
Virginia, 18 in Georgia, 14 in Vermont, 12
in Kansas, 11 in Maine, 10 each in Alabama
and New Jersey, 7 each in Kentucky, Massa-
chusetts, Nebraska, and Washington, 6 each
in Connecticut and Mississippi, 5 in Texas, 4
in Colorado, 3 each in Arkansas, Florida,
Maryland, New Hampshire, Oregon, South
Carolina, and South Dakota, 2 each in
Idaho, Oklahoma, and West Virginia, and 1
each in Louisiana and Montana.

Agricultural Implements Industry li-
censed, 8499.

Agricultural Products.-The agricultural
products of the United States are so diversi-
fied that it would be useless to attempt to
describe all in a single article or even in
an ordinary sized volume. The Department
of Agriculture publishes annual reports cov-
ering the field in general and frequent spe-
cial reports and bulletins on agricultural
products.

The annual averages for the last ten years
of the exports of our leading agricultural
products have been as follows: Wheat, in-
cluding flour, 209,478,011 bushels. Rye,
including flour, 19,973,122 bushels. Corn,
including meal and flour, 36,128,497 bushels.
Cotton, 7,420,172 bales. Oats, oatmeal, etc.,
52,902,738 bushels. Tobacco, leaf, 448,580,-
202 lbs. (See also Meat, Dairy Products
and Commerce.)

The number of farms in the United States
in 1900 was 5,737,372; in 1910, 6,361,502,
an increase of 11%; in 1920, 6,419,998, an
increase of 12%.

For dairy products, see Dairying and
Cattle Raising and Butter, Cheese and Con-
densed Milk.

Year Board

Board

Board

Board

1866...$17.45

$26.87

$1.74 $2.20

1885... 12.34

17.97

1916.. 23.25
1918.. 34.92
1919...
39.82
1920... 46.89

56.29

3.15

3.83

Duties on, discussed and referred
to, 1243, 1931, 2112, 2181, 2274,
2419.

Production of, in U. S., 6727, 6906.
Tobacco-

Duties on, in foreign ports, 1648,
1738, 1909, 2167, 2192, 2909, 3120.
Exportation of, to countries at
peace with United States, orders
regarding, 3379, 3434.

From Netherlands and Dutch col-
onies, tax on, discussed, 4979,
4986, 5088.

Growth, production, and trade of,
referred to, 2133.

Internal tax on, removal of, rec- ·
ommended, 5474.

Trade with foreign countries to be
promoted, 1588, 1713, 1822,
2167.

Referred to, 1806.

Value of annual production of, dis-
cussed, 5642, 5744, 5764, 5978.

Agriculture:

Advancement of, recommended, 58,
60, 61, 77, 78, 194, 197, 318, 361,
3776, 4457, 4530, 4947, 5112.
Credits for-

European system of, investigated,
7775, 7819, 7909.

Recommended and discussed, 7870,
7908, 8018, 8116.
Experiment stations

discussed, 194,

197, 5384, 5980, 6347, 6733, 6905.
Prosperous state of, 95, 175, 240, 978,
1747.

Soil fertility, importance of conserv
ing, 7462.

Southern states' problem of diversifica-
tion in, 7537.

Stimulation of, needed, 8814, 8886.
Agriculture, Bureau of:
Appropriations for, recommended,
3996.

Discussed, 3334, 3452, 3564, 4066,
4106, 4364, 4645, 4947, 5112, 5383.
Employees in-

To participate in decoration of
graves of soldiers, 4753, 4818,
4899, 5078, 5350.

To participate in dedication of
Washington Monument, 4879.
To witness inauguration of Presi.
dent Cleveland, 4881.

Enlargement of facilities of, recom-
mended, 4530.

Establishment of, 3334.