were classed as obsolete and 4 as obsolescent. This situation obtained because the new aviation developments and the secrets of the belligerents in the war had been zealously guarded from neutrals. From that date to November 30, 1918 (the armistice with Germany having been signed on November 11, 1919) there were produced in the United States 9,503 training planes and 17,673 training engines.
The De Haviland-4 observation and day Lombing plane was the only plane put into maximum production in this country. By the signing of the armistice 3,227 had been completed and 1,885 had been shipped overseas, of which 667 had reached the zone of advance. At the time of the armistice, the plane was being produced at the rate of over 1,100 a month.
The twelve-cylinder Liberty engine was the most valuable contribution of the United States to the air efforts of the Entente Allies in the war. Before the signing of the armistice, 13,574 had been completed, 4,435 had been shipped to the American Expeditionary Forces and 1,025 had been delivered to America's associates in the war. The production of Liberty engines in October, 1919, was more than 3,850. The total number of all airplane engines produced in the United States was 16,325.
Aviation training schools in the United States graduated 8,602 men from the elementary courses and 4,028 from the advanced courses. More than 5,000 pilots and observers were sent overseas. The total personnel of the Air Service increased from 1.200 in April, 1917, to almost 200,000 in November, 1918.
The first American air squadrons went into action in France in April, 1918. By the armistice, there were 45 such squadrons, with an equipment of 740 planes. Of all the planes sent to the zone of advance for American aviators, about one-fourth were of American manufacture, the remainder coming from America's allies.
In the battles of Château-Thierry, the St. Mihiel Salient and the Meuse-Argonne, American aviators brought down 755 enemy planes, with a loss of only 357 planes of their own.
The number of observation balloons produced was 642. Of these, 369 were shipped
Aircraft Production, Bureau and Director of, created and duties assigned, 8515, 8516.
Alabama.-One of the southern group of states; nicknamed, the "Land of FlowThe name is Indian and means "Here we rest," and has been adopted as the motto of the State. Alabama is bounded on the north by Tennessee, on the east by Georgia, and on the west by Mississippi. It is about 330 miles in length from north to south and its greatest width is 200 miles. It contains 51,998 square miles of area, or about 33,000,000 acres. The State was admitted into the Union Dec. 14, 1819, seceded Jan. 11, 1861, and was readmitted by act of Congress June 25, 1868 (pages 3521, 3857.) The latest estimate of the population was 2,395,270, of which about 40 per cent was negro.
The latest figures for education indicate that 375,824 of the 454,478 white children of school age were enrolled in the schools of the state, and 190,250 of the 315,327 negro children. The average attendance in the white schools was 235,393, with 9,050 teachers with an average salary (woman's) of $367. The average attendance in the negro schools was 102,398, with 2,716 teachers with an average salary (woman's) of $172. Twelve per cent of the white children and twenty-five per cent of the negro children were not at school for one day during the school year.
The staple production of Alabama is cotton, though corn, oats, wheat, and all kinds of vegetables are produced in abundance, besides butter, cheese, and lumber. Alabama is particularly rich in mineral deposits. A vein of bituminous coal runs eastward from Tuscaloosa into Georgia. The statuary granite of Alabama is among the best in the United States. The chief industries of the State are farming and the manufacture of iron and cotton fabrics. The latest figures for the chief agricultural products are as follows:
The Iron ores of Alabama, though inferior to those of Lake Superior, have a compensating advantage in lying near beds of good coking coal and of limestone suitable for fluxing, so that Birmingham, the Pittsburgh of the South, can manufacture pig iron cheaper than any other place in the world. Before 1882, when the boom began, the coal production of Alabama had not amounted to as much as half a million tons In any one year; in 1913 it was 17,678,522 tons. The value of the coal product of Alabama is approximately two-thirds that of the total mineral output, amounting in 1913 to $23,083,724.
The latest figures for the coal production were 21,280,000 net tons, an increase of 60 per cent over the preceding year. Some 5,350,000 tons of coke were produced, and 1,230,000 gross tons of iron ore.
The number of manufacturing establishments in Alabama having an annual output valued at $500 or more at the beginning of 1915 was 3,240. The amount of capital invested was $218,062,000 giving occupation to 87,916 persons, using material valued at
Proclaimed, 3837.
Indian depredations in, 1645.
Indians attempt to establish govern- ment in, 1020.
Lands granted to, in aid of railroads referred to, 3580.
Memorial from colored citizens of Montgomery asking rights of cit- izenship referred to, 4258. Property owners in, should be com- pensated for losses sustained, 1474. Provisional governor for, appointed and restoration of, into Union, 3521. Railroads in, memorial from legisla- ture of, asking extension of time to complete, 3579.
Alabama Claims.-During the Civil War in the United States the Queen of England issued a proclamation of neutrality, May 13, 1861, granting belligerent rights to both combatants and forbidding her subjects to take part with either. Great Britain's laws prohibited the equipment of any land or naval forces within her dominions to act against any friendly power. Notwith- standing this prohibition, the Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Shenandoah, and other vessels were built in Great Britain for the Confederate States, and, regardless of the remonstrances of the American ministry, were allowed to escape from British ports fitted out as commerce destroyers. In less than two months the Alabama had taken twenty-seven prizes. After a long cruise among islands of the East and West Indies and along the coast of Brazil the Alabama came to anchor at Cherbourg, France. Off this harbor she was sunk by the U. S. S. Kearsarge, after having destroyed 58 ves- sels and about $6,550,000 worth of prop- erty. After the war the United States pressed a claim for damages against Great Britain. After much discussion it was agreed to submit the matter to a court of arbitration composed of Charles Francis Adams, appointed by the President of the United States; Sir Alexander Cockburn, by the Queen of England: Count Federigo Sclopis, by the King of Italy; M. Jacques Staempfli, by the President of Switzerland, and Viscount d'Itajuba, by the Emperor of Brazil. The commissioners met at Geneva, Switzerland, Dec. 15. 1871, Count Sclopis presiding, The United States was award- ed $15,500,000 in gold in satisfaction for all claims. All claims to indirect dam- ages were rejected, and Great Britain was beld culpable for not doing more to pre- vent the sailing and success of the cruisers. The award was paid. (See Geneva Tri- bunal and illustration opposite 3664.)
Alabama Indians. (See Indian Tribes.) Alabama, The, destruction of, by the
Kearsarge referred to, 3457. (See also Alabama Claims.)
Alamo.-Originally built as a church, situ- ated on the San Antonio River, near San Antonio, Texas, it was converted into a fort. In February, 1836, It pied by Colonel W. B. Travis with 140 men who were in arms against the govern- ment of Mexico. The party was besieged
by some 2,000 Mexicans under Santa Ana from February 23 until March 6, when the place was surrendered to Santa Ana under the promise of his protection. At the com- mand of that general, however, the six survivors, including David Crockett and Colonel Bowie, famous frontiersmen, were massacred, and the bodies of their com- rades were mutilated. Thereafter Texans
were roused to fury by the cry, "Remember the Alamo !" In allusion to the heroic de- fense made by the Greeks of antiquity at Thermopylæ, this struggle was sometimes referred to as the Thermopyla of Texas. Alaska. History. Alaska derives its name from an English corruption of the native word "Al-ay-ek-sa," probably mean- ing "The great land" or "Mainland."
The region now known as Alaska was first explored by the Russian officers Bering and Chirikov in 1741. Russian traders and trappers soon entered the country and through their activity other nations became interested in this region. Spanish expedi- tions in 1774 and 1775 visited the south- eastern shore and in 1778 the English Ex- plorer, Capt. James Cook, made extensive surveys of the coast for the British Gov- ernment. The first settlement was made by the Russians at Three Saints on Kodiak Island in 1784, and in 1804 the Russian-
American Co. founded Sitka, making it the seat of government in the following year.
In 1799 the trade and regulation of the Russian possessions in America, were given over to the Russian-American Co. for a term of 20 years, which was afterwards twice renewed for similar periods.
In 1821 Russia attempted by ukase_to exclude foreign navigators from Bering Sea and the Pacific coast of her possessions, which caused a controversy with the United States and Great Britain. The question was settled by a treaty with the United States in 1824 and one with Great Britain in 1825, by which the boundaries of the Russian possessions in America were per- manently fixed.
In March, 1867, Alaska was purchased by the United States for the sum of $7,- 200,000 in gold, and in October of the same year the formal transfer was made at Sitka. From 1867 to 1877 Alaska was governed by the War Department, although the customs were from the beginning col- lected by the Treasury Department, and with the latter the control rested from 1877 until the passage of the act of 1884. This act extended over Alaska the laws of the State of Oregon so far as they were ap- plicable, created a judicial district and a land district, put in force the mining laws of the United States, and gave the country an administrative system.
The influx of settlers after the discovery of gold in the Klondike in 1896 rendered more adequate laws necessary. In 1899 and 1900 Congress made provisions for a code of civil and criminal law, and in 1903 passed a homestead act.
There had long been a disagreement with Great Britain over the location of the boundary line between Canada and Alaska, owing to a difference in the Interpretation of a treaty made between Russia and Great Britain in 1825, defining this bound- ary; and on the discovery of gold in Alaska, in 1895-96, this matter reached a serious stage. The main point of differ ence was whether the boundary line should be thirty marine leagues (mentioned in the Russia-Great Britain treaty of 1825) east from the western boundary of the Islands off the Alaska coast, or that dis- tance east of the mainland coast. In 1899 a provisionary boundary was agreed upon, and on Jan. 24, 1903, a treaty was signed between Great Britain and the United States providing for a tribunal of three British and three American commissioners to settle the dispute. The treaty was rati- fled by the United States Senate on Feb. 11, 1903, and on March 3 ratifications were exchanged between the two governments. The commission sat in London and on Oct. 17, 1903, made a decision mainly in favor of the United States, granting Canada ac- cess to the Pacific only near the southern end of the boundary and giving her Wales and Pease islands, in Portland Canal. June, 1904, a survey of the boundary thus determined was begun by engineers of the United States and Canada.
By the act of May 7, 1906, Alaska was given power to elect a Delegate to Congress. The act of August 24, 1912, provided for the creation of a Territorial legislature.
The Sixty-second Congress on Aug. 24, 1912, passed a law creating a territorial government for Alaska and establishing Ju. neau as the capital. In order to develop the mineral possibilities and prevent a threatened monopoly of the coal fields a railroad commission was appointed to con- duct an examination Into the transporta-
tion question in the Territory of Alaska. Upon the report of this committee was based legislation providing for purchase or construction of railroads and the leasing of the coal lands, The act of March 12, 1914. authorized the President to purchase or construct 1,000 miles of railroad at a cost not to exceed $35,000,000 to connect one or more of the open Pacific harbors on the southern coast of Alaska with the navigable rivers of the interior, and with one or more of the known coal fields. This railroad may be leased or operated by the government, as Congress may see fit. The act of Oct. 22 provided for the lease of coal lands at two cents a ton for the coal mined.
Geography.-Alaska in its greatest ex- tent is included between the meridians of 130° west longitude and 173° east longitude and between the parallels of 51° and 72° north latitude. It is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the west by the Arctic Ocean, Bering Strait, and Bering Sea, on the south and southwest by the Gulf of Alaska and the Pacific Ocean, and on the east by the Yukon Territory and British Columbia. The eastern boundary from the Arctic Ocean to the neighborhood of Mount St. Elias is the one hundred and forty-first meridian; thence southeastward to Portland Canal it is irregular and can- not be described in general terms.
The area of Alaska is 590,884 square miles, about one-fifth that of the United States. The popular conception of the size of Alaska is based on maps of North Amer- ica, which always distort it. The map of Alaska, superimposed on a map of the United States of the same scale, demon- strates that the distance from the eastern- most to the westernmost point in Alaska is equal to the distance from the Atlantic to the Pacific in the latitude of Los Angeles, and that its northernmost and southern- most points are nearly as far apart as the Mexican and the Canadian boundaries of the United States.
The main mass of Alaska is nearly rec- tangular and is carved out from the con- tinent by Mackenzie Bay on the north and the Gulf of Alaska on the south. An ex- tension to the southeast is furnished by the so-called panhandle of southeastern Alaska, and to the southwest by the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands.
Topography.-The main topographic fea- tures of Alaska are similar to those of the western United States. The highlands of Alaska, like those of the United States and Canada, are in general parallel to the coast line, and the four topographic provinces of the United States are fairly well defined throughout western Canada and continue into Alaska. Along the Pacific coast of Alaska and British Columbia is a moun- tainous belt 50 to 200 miles in width, which is the westernmost of the four provinces, and may be designated the "Pacific Moun- tain system." It properly includes the mountainous Alexander Archipelago and Aleutian Islands, as well as a number of other island groups. While this region is in the main rugged and mountainous, its ranges are distinct and often separated by broad valleys or indentations of the coast line, forming in several cases large basins, like that of the Copper River. Except for a section of the inner slope which drains into the Yukon and Kuskokwim, its waters reach the Pacific through streams flowing transverse to the axis of the mountains.
East and north of the Pacific Mountains Is the Central Plateau region, correspond- ing in a broad way with the Central Plateau of the western United States and
Canada. This belt is drained largely by the Yukon and Kuskokwim Rivers into Ber- Ing Sea, and includes a number of lowland areas of considerable extent. East and north of the plateau province, a broad cor- dillera forms the northern extension of the Rocky Mountain system. The drainage of the southern slopes of the mountains is chiefly tributary to the Yukon, while the northern slope drains into the Ocean. Arctic
The Great Plains east and north of the Rockies form an area of low relief which lies between the western extension of the Rocky Mountains and the Arctic Ocean and is designated the "Arctic slope region."
Climate.-Though Alaska is often loosely referred to as an Arctic province, yet nearly three-quarters of its area lies within the North Temperate Zone. tion and extent relative to oceanic bodies, Geographic positogether with relief, have brought about physical conditions producing strong contrasts in climate between different parts of the Territory.
Population.-The 1920 census gave the population of Alaska as 55,036, as compared with 64,356 in 1910. The decrease is due to the exhaustion of placers and the closing of lode mines. The largest towns, with their populations, were Fairbanks, 1,155; Juneau, 3,058; Ketchikan, 2,458; Sitka, 1,175; Anchorage, 1,856. About half of the population is composed of natives.
Government.-The executive power Is vested in the governor, who is appointed by the President for a term of four years by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. The governor may veto any bill passed by the Territorial legislature with
three days after it is presented to him. The legislature may override the veto by a two-thirds vote of all the members to which each house is entitled.
The legislative power is vested in a Ter ritorial legislature consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The Senate consists of 8 members, 2 from each of the four judicial divisions into which Alaska is now divided. The House of Representatives consists of 16 members, 4 from each of the four judicial divisions. The term of each member of the Senate is four years, one member from each judicial division being elected every two years. The term of each member of the House of Representatives is two years.
The legislature convenes blennially at Juneau, the capital, on the first Monday in March in odd years, and the length of the session is limited to 60 days, but the governor is empowered to call a special session, which shall not continue longer than 15 days. Elections for members of the legislature are held every two years on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November of each even year.
The judicial power of the Territory is vested in the United States District Court for Alaska, which has the same jurisdiction as the district courts of the United States and has general jurisdiction in civil, criminal, equity, and admiralty causes. This court is divided into four divisions, presided over by four judges appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, for a term of four years.
The Territory elects a Delegate to Congress, who may participate in debate, but who has, no vote. Beginning in 1914 this Delegate is elected on the same date as members of the legislature.
National Forests.-The coast forests, which comprise the most heavily timbered areas in Alaska, are nearly all included in the Tongass and Chugach National Forests. These are under the jurisdiction of the Forest Service of the United States Department of Agriculture.
The best estimates available place the total stand of merchantable timber on the Tongass National Forest at 70,000,000,000 board feet, and on the Chugach at 8,000,000,000 board feet. This timber consists largely of hemlock and Sitka spruce, although there are considerable western red cedar and some yellow cypress, chiefly on the Tongass. The timber is suitable for construction material, finish, and a large amount is suitable for paper pulp. very The Chugach comprises 5,130,201 acres and the Tongass, 15,449,539.
In the most recent year for which figures are available, 48,000,000 board feet of lumber were cut, besides 6,000,000 furnished free for the construction of the government railroad.
Resources. In recent years, the most valuable product from Alaska has been fish, especially salmon. The mineral wealth, especially gold and copper, continues valuable, and the lumber is a natural resource of great potentiality. There is an increasing amount of attention to agriculture.
Gold lode mining has been prosecuted in southeastern Alaska since 1882 and placer mining, begun at Juneau in 1880, was extended to the Yukon basin in 1886. No very important discoveries of placer gold, however, were found until after the discoveries in the Klondike in 1898. began in 1900. The first attempt at coal Copper mining mining was on Cook Inlet, by the Russians, in 1854.
The total amount of minerals produced in Alaska is valued at about $470,000,000, but in recent years the production has sharply declined, being subject to the world-wide depression in gold and copper production. Thus in a recent year the gold production amounted to only $8,365,560. The total value of all the gold produced in the territory is about $325,000,000.
The copper production has also declined, the last annual production being only 70,435,363 pounds, valued at $12,960,106. In the year for which the above figures are given, the silver production was valued at $1,039,364 and the coal, at $355,668. The other minerals produced-lead, tin, platinum, palladium, petroleum, marble and gypsum-brought the total annual mineral production to $23,303,757.
The number of persons employed in the fisheries is about 27,500, and the total investment in the industry is about $70,000,000, chiefly in salmon-canning. The total annual value of the Alaska fisheries for a recent year was $41.492.124, of which $35,602,800 was represented by canned salmon. The other fish chiefly represented were halibut, herring, cod and whales.
Commerce.-Practically all of the trade of Alaska is with continental United States. In a recent year, Alaska's exports were valued at $69,911,422, and the Imports at $38,418,473. The exports included $34.781,970 for canned salmon and $4.911,046 for other fish; $14,006,477 for copper ore and $7,413,751 for gold and silver.
In a recent year, the value of the furs shipped from Alaska was $3,291,584, including more than $1,500,000 for seal, followed
in order of value by fox, mink and muskrat. The seal herd on the Pribilof Islands showed a population of about 553,000, of which 167,527 were breeding cows and 167,- 527 were pups.
The importation of reindeer from Siberia Into Alaska began in 1892 in order to fur- nish material for food and clothing for the Eskimo in the vicinity of Bering Strait
On June 30, 1917, there were 82,151 reindeer in 76 herds.
Schools. The territory maintains for the native children 67 schools, with a staff of 6 superintendents, 133 teachers, 9 physi- clans and 13 nurses. The last annual na- tive enrollment was 930. There are 77 native schools maintained by the Bureau of Education, with 3,341 pupils enrolled and 145 teachers. There are 16 schools in in- corporated towns for white children, with an enrollment of 1,828. Outside of incor- porated towns, the territory maintains schools for white children and children of mixed parentage to the number of 52, with 65 teachers and an enrollment of 1,357.
There are in Alaska 23 newspapers; 18 banks, with deposits of about $6,500,000 and capital of $655,000; about 160 post- offices; 15 army, 7 navy and 13 commercial radio stations.
Telegraph and Cable Lines.-Telegraph and cable lines and a wireless system are constructed and operated by the War De- partment. The military cable line has its Southern terminus at Seattle, Wash., where connection is made with the commercial telegraph companies.
Transportation.-The Yukon and the Kus- kokwim are navigable during the thirteen to fifteen weeks of the open season, in con- nection wth ocean-borne commerce. The Yukon is navigable for about 2,200 miles, into Canada, and its tributary, the Tanana, is navigable to Chena, near Fairbanks. The Kuskokwim is navigable for about 650 miles, and, like the Yukon, has many navigable tributaries. There are a number of ports along the Pacific which are always open. There are three regular passenger freight steamship lines serving Alaska.
The private railroads are primarily ore- and fish-carrying, but perform also the serv- ices of common carriers. The chief of these is the Copper River and Northwestern, from Cordova to Kennicott, a distance of about 200 miles. The White Pass and Yukon Railroad, from Skagway to Whitehorse, Canada, has 23 miles of its route within Alaska. The Yakutat and Southern runs from Seward to Fairbanks. There are sev- eral other railroads, chiefly on the Seward Peninsula, and narrow-gauge.
Government Railroad.-In 1914, Congress appropriated $35,000,000 for the construc- tion of a Government railroad in Alaska. The sum was later increased by $21,000,000. The work was prosecuted under the direc- tion of the Alaskan Engineering Commis- sion. The route selected was from Seward to Fairbanks, a distance of 471 miles. The project included the purchase of the Alas- kan Northern Railroad, which ran about 71 miles north from Seward, and the Tanana Valley Railroad, from Fairbanks to Chata- nika, about 39 miles, the latter utilized as a feeder. A side line extends from Mata- nuska Junction into the Matanuska coal fields, a distance of 38 miles, with a 3-mile spur up Eska Creek.
The construction of the main line was finished in 1922, by which time the branch lines to Matanuska and along the Tanana River had been in operation for some time. Seven miles of the Tanana Railroad were used, and of the Alaska Northern, only a section could be used, much of the grade being abandoned beyond Spencer Summit, 53 miles north of Seward. The main con- struction base was at Fairbanks.
The Federal Government has constructed about 5,000 miles of wagon road, of which about 400 have a gravel surface and are suited for light automobile traffic. The main road is that connecting Fairbanks with Valdez on the coast and Chitina on the Copper Valley Railroad, on which a regular wagon and sled stage service is maintained. Other roads are in existence or under con- struction to connect with the Government Railroad. The territorial government also constructs roads, and roads within the na- tional forests are opened up by the Bureau of Public Roads.
Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition com. mended, 7052, 7103. Attempted occupation of portion of, by Great Britain and Canada, 6097. Attempts of Great Britain and Can- ada to establish post routes in, 6097.
Boundary line with British posses- sions-
Commission to determine, recom- mended, 4141, 4918.
Discussed, 4141, 4917, 4985, 5366, 5400. 5958, 6063, 6370, 6430. 6792, 6826.
Report regarding, referred to, 4985.
Cession of, to United States-- Discussed, 3778, 3886. Referred to, 3798.
Treaty regarding, referred to, 3719,
Appropriation for payment un- der, recommended, 3719, 3778. Chinese in, cruel treatment of, 5083. Coal fields of, 7561, 7564, 7720. Coast line charts for, 8019. Collection district established at Sit- ka, 3865.
Commission government suggested for, 7436, 7535, 7722.
Conditions of, 6725, 6792, 6799, 6918, 6919, 7019.
Controller Bay, opening to settle- ment of land on, discussed, 7599. Delegate to Congress from, discussed, 6920, 7019.
Development of, discussed by Presi dent-
Roosevelt, 6920.
Taft, 7616.
Wilson, 7912.
Education in, appropriation for, rec- ommended, 4667, 5483, 6453.
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