NEW ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE CONCEPTS AND PROCEDURES Hand in hand with the evolution in weapons and techniques of war, resulting from the Army's systematic research program, there necessarily goes a corresponding evolution in organization, training, and management. New developments of this sort do not come within the field of "research and development" as that phrase is used by the Department of the Army, However, they interact with it so closely that a brief reference may be made here to recent advances in these lines. THE PENTOMIC ORGANIZATION. The new pentomic divisions and missile commands are based on the use of atomic and other modern weapons and equipment, and on the tactical concepts resulting from them. All of the Army's active divisions had been converted to the pentomic organization by the summer of 1958. (See Introduction.) TRAINING. New developments in this field include the creation of the Combat Developments Experiment Station and a new system of training for rifle marksmanship. (See chapter 8.) LOGISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. There have been important recent developments in these fields, designed to speed up and simplify the supply of the Army, save money, and assure cooperation among the Armed Services. They include programs for standardization, miniaturization, interservice supply support, and financial inventory accounting; the establishment of the Federal Supply Control System, the Army Stock Fund, and the Modern Army Supply System (MASS); the development of a plan for national inventory control points; the progressive implementation of the single manager concept; and the increased use of automatic data processing. For details see chapter 10. AGENCIES INVOLVED IN RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Under the overall supervision of the Department of Defense, there are various agencies in the Department of the Army and elsewhere which are involved in the Army's R&D effort. DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY LEVEL. In 1955 the Army established the position of Director of Research and Development as a principal assistant to the Secretary of the Army. Thus the role and function of Army research and development was advanced further than at any other time in the service's 183-year-old history. This civilian Director reports directly to the Secretary of the Army. His authority and responsibility equal those of the other Assistant Secretaries of the Army in their respective fields. He is responsible for the Army Research and Development Program. On the next lower echelon we find the Chief of Research and Development. This officer serves as a Deputy to the Army Chief of Staff. He is directly responsible to him for the overall supervision of all Army R&D pro grams-development of equipment and conduct of research in both the materiel and nonmateriel fields to meet present and future Army needs. He is not yet called a Deputy Chief of Staff-these positions are fixed by law-but has the status of, and functions in the same manner as, the actual Deputy Chiefs. His office has three main directoratesspecial weapons, research, and development. At Department of the Army level is the Army Scientific Advisory Panel (ASAP). This group was formed in 1951 to utilize fully the specialized knowledge and broad managerial experience that exists within the nation's colleges and universities, private nonprofit foundations and research organizations, industry, business and the professions, and government departments and agencies. It began as a small and informal organization to advise the Secretary of the Army on scientific and technical matters. In 1954 it became a permanent body. Four scientific subpanels were organized, on firepower, communications and electronics, mobility, and CBR warfare. A subpanel on human factors was added later. Recently the mobility subpanel was divided into two separate subpanels, on ground and air mobility, respectively. A subpanel on operations analysis was then added, bringing the total to seven. Other important groups are the Materiel Requirements Review Committee and the Research and Development Review Board. The former reviews major items of equipment, establishes bases of issue of adopted items, and submits recommendations to the Chief of Staff based on a continuing review and resolution of the materiel requirements of the Army. The latter agency reviews program requests and budget estimates on R&D submitted by the General Staff, the technical services, and operating agencies in the R&D field. The National Inventors Council, Department of Commerce, composed of qualified civilian scientists and engineers and members of the military services, receives, from individuals and organizations, ideas, suggestions, inventions and the like which to varying degrees have already been developed. The members evaluate each suggestion or invention and, if warranted, refer it to the appropriate research and development agency of the Department of Defense for further study. THE SERVICES; R&D FIELD AGENCIES. The seven technical services carry the main responsibility for research and development in the Army. The Chiefs of these services report to the Chief of Research and Development on R&D matters. In turn, the Chief of Research and Development advises the Chief of Staff, the Director of Research and Development, and the Secretary of the Army. He also reviews, coordinates, plans, initiates, and formulates policies, procedures, and programs for Army R&D activities. The following is a list of Army installations where R&D work is being carried on. As will be seen, some but not all are under the control of individual technical services. ORDNANCE Aberdeen Proving Ground, Aberdeen, Maryland Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California Jet Propulsion Laboratory Field Test Station, Edwards AFB, California Redstone Arsenal and Army Ballistic Missile Agency, Huntsville, Alabama Watervliet Arsenal, Watervliet, New York Frankford Arsenal, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Rock Island Arsenal, Rock Island, Illinois Detroit Arsenal, Detroit, Michigan Office of Ordnance Research, Durham, North Carolina CHEMICAL Army Chemical Center, Edgewood, Maryland Fort Detrick, Frederick, Maryland Dugway Proving Ground, Dugway, Utah SIGNAL U.S. Army Signal Research and Development Laboratory, Fort Monmouth, New Jersey Army Electronic Proving Ground, Fort Huachuca, Arizona White Sands Signal Corps Agency, New Mexico Project Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan (contractor plant) Electronic Defense Laboratory, Mountain View, California (contractor plant) QUARTERMASTER QM Research and Engineering Center, Natick, Massachusetts QM Food and Container Institute, Chicago, Illinois QM Field Evaluation Agency, Fort Lee, Virginia ENGINEERS Engineer Research and Development Laboratories, Fort Belvoir, Virginia SIPRE Field Station, Houghton, Michigan Army Cold Areas Frost Effects Laboratory, Boston, Massachusetts Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi MEDICAL Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Washington, D. C., and Forest Glen, Md. Army Medical Research Laboratory, Fort Knox, Kentucky Army Environmental Health Laboratory, Edgewood, Maryland Fitzsimons Army Hospital, Denver, Colorado Brooke Army Medical Center, San Antonio, Texas Tropical Research Medical Laboratory, San Juan, Puerto Rico Far East Medical Research Unit, Tokyo, Japan Medical Research Unit, Malaya TRANSPORTATION Transportation R&D Command, Fort Eustis, Virginia ENVIRONMENTAL TEST STATIONS Yuma Test Station, Yuma, Arizona Fort Churchill, Canada CONARC TEST FACILITIES U.S. Army Combat Development and Experimental Center, Fort Ord, California U.S. Army Armor Board, Fort Knox, Kentucky U.S. Army Infantry Board, Fort Benning, Georgia U.S. Army Air Defense Board, Fort Bliss, Texas U.S. Army Airborne and Electronics Board, Fort Bragg, North Carolina U.S. Army Aviation Board, Fort Rucker, Alabama U.S. Army Arctic Test Board, Fort Greely, Alaska ARMY WIDE Human Resources Research Office, Washington, D. C. U.S. Army Armor Human Research Unit, Fort Knox, Kentucky U.S. Army Leadership Human Research Unit, Presidio of Monterey, Calif. U.S. Army Infantry Human Research Unit, Fort Benning, Georgia U.S. Army Air Defense Human Research Unit, Fort Bliss, Texas Army Participating Group, Naval Training Devices Center, Port Washington, N. Y. Mathematics Research Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin CIVILIAN COOPERATION. It would be neither economical nor practicable to conduct all Army R&D projects with Army personnel in Army installations. Outside help from the civilian world is therefore sought and used on a large scale. This is done by contracts made with commercial organizations, research foundations, and educational institutions. Such contracts are usually awarded by one of the Army technical services, with which the agency deals direct. In general they are based on negotiation rather than on advertising and competitive bids. Many recent achievements in the R&D field were attained by the use of civilian facilities and skills. In the creation of Nike-Hercules the Ordnance Corps worked with Western Electric, Bell Telephone Laboratories, and Douglas Aircraft. For Hawk the prime contractor is Raytheon Mfg. Co. and the major subcontractor is Northrop Aviation Co. of California. The solid fuel engine of Hawk was developed by Thiokol Chemical Corp. at its Redstone Arsenal installation. Honest John was developed by Douglas Aircraft and Emerson Electric Mfg. Co., working with Army personnel. Dart involved a high degree of civilian cooperation. Redstone (the missile) is also the joint product of the Army and private industry. In charge of its development was the nationally-known civilian authority, Dr. Wernher von Braun, who then headed the Guided Missile Development Division. (In 1956 this division was transferred to the new Army Ballistic Missile Agency, created to make the missile operational as soon as possible.) Lacrosse was developed by Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc. The Martin Company is the prime contractor for production, and the rocket motor will be produced by Thiokol. Sergeant was developed by the Caltech Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Sperry Gyroscope is prime contractor for its production. The rocket motor will be produced by Thiokol at their Utah Division facilities near Brigham City; it was developed at Thiokol's Redstone Division. Motorola Corporation and the Bell Telephone Laboratories have worked with the Army Signal Corps in developing the Army's mobile radio switching center described above. Prime contractor for Army high endurance surveillance drones is Fairchild Aircraft and Engine Corporation. Texas Instruments of Dallas, Texas, is a major subcontractor for airborne surveillance radar. The ground radar guidance system is being developed by Ford Instrument Company. Aero Neutronics, a subsidiary of the Ford Motor Company, is developing a Tactical Operations Center under direction of the Army Signal Research and Development Laboratories, with close guidance by the Army Command and General Staff College. This Center will use a mobile digital computercalled MOBIDIC by the Army-which was developed by Sylvania. COORDINATION. Due to the complexities of modern military equipment, R&D work leading to the development of some new weapon or device may come within the purview of two or more of the technical services. Also, such work may affect still other branches of the Army, or even the other Armed Services. To meet this situation there are technical committees which give official approval and recognition to any new R&D project, and enable the technical services and the other military departments to learn of it in time to initiate projects of their own for their part of the complete weapon system. On the Ordnance Technical Committee, for example, there are representatives of each of the technical services and a member from the office of the Chief of R&D. When projects discussed are of concern to the Navy and the Air Force, members of these Services are often present. At Department of the Army level there is the Research and Development Review Board. At the next higher level the Department of Defense's Research and Engineering Coordinating Committees examine proposed R&D projects to avoid duplication and overlapping. Each military department is represented. A representative of the Secretary of Defense attends. This formal coordinating mechanism at the highest level is conducted by scientific and engineering experts in their respective fields. In addition, there are joint committees which include, besides Army, Navy, and Air Force representatives, members from the National Research Council, Office of the Secretary of Defense, Civil Aeronautics Administration, Civil Aeronautics Board, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Central Intelligence Agency, National Science Foundation, and Department of Commerce. Some committees have Government-wide and British and Canadian Army representation as well. INTERSERVICE COOPERATION. A satisfactory R&D program for the three Armed Services calls for harmonious cooperation among them, not only at the top but at all levels. It should be stated here that such cooperation is the rule and that the reverse is the exception. One of many examples that may be given is the conference of Army and Air Force ballistic missile experts at the Army's Redstone Arsenal, in the fall of 1957, to exchange technical information on the Jupiter and Thor IRBM missile projects. A news release, following the conference, stated that . . . the Army is continuing this development (Jupiter) under authority of the Secretary of Defense, who has determined that operational employment of the IRBM will be the responsibility of the Air Force. . . . The sole interest of both uniformed services is to provide the best IRBM at the earliest practicable date in the urgent interest of national defense. It is to achieve this objective that we have committed all resources, manpower, facilities, and funds for the purpose. Out of this joint effort will emerge the weapons systems determined essential to the security of our country." The marriage of theory and practice in interservice cooperation occurs in the field as well. For example, recently a runway on Fletcher's Ice Island in the North Polar Sea proved unsatisfactory. The Army provided prompt emergency aid for the Air Force through its First Engineer Arctic Task Force, which repaired the airstrip. Again, when the ice airfield at McMurdo Sound, resupply point for Little America, began breaking up at a critical point in Navy operations, that service radioed the Army's Snow, Ice, and Permafrost Establishment, 7,000-odd miles away, and the Army responded immediately. The establishment's Dr. Andrew Assur was flown to the South Pole, with stops only to refuel or change planes. Taking advantage of the higher freezing point of fresh water ice as opposed to salt or sea water ice, Dr. Assur reconnected the separated sections of the airfield by pouring fresh water and fresh water ice into the breaks. It had appeared that the base would have to be abandoned. Now Navy operations were able to continue. Dr. Assur was recommended for the Navy's highest civilian award. AWARDS AND DECORATIONS The origin of medals and similar devices, as a recognition of special acts of public service, is lost in antiquity. In most foreign countries there are "Orders," the lineal descendants of the Orders of Chivalry of the Middle Ages. They are sometimes but not always divided into several classes, corresponding to the rank of the member and the value of the service rewarded. Examples of orders are the Order of the Garter (English), the Order of the Golden Fleece (Spanish and formerly Austrian), and the Legion of Honor (French). The United States does not have such orders. It does, however, like other countries, have certain decorations, service medals, etc., which are awarded to members or units of the Armed Forces, and in some cases to civilians. No American decoration awarded to Americans is divided into different classes nor does possession of one entitle the holder to membership in any society. The first American military decoration, the Badge for Military Merit, was established by Washington in 1782. It has been allowed to fall into disuse, although three existing decorations, the Legion of Merit, the Purple Heart, and the Medal for Merit, stem from it. Our present Army system of decorations is traceable only to the Civil War, when Congress, on 12 July 1862, established the Medal of Honor as an award to members of the Army. (As a Navy award it had been created on 21 December 1861.) Subsequent legislation has authorized the various other awards in use today. American awards to military personnel fall into two main categories, individual and unit. Individual awards, in turn, are divided into decorations for valor, decorations for service, service medals, and badges. Foreign awards and decorations may be worn under certain conditions. There are also awards for civilians. These are discussed in detail below. 1 There are several degrees or classes of the Legion of Merit and the awards to foreigners only. |