To fight and win a modern war requires the close cooperation of the three Armed Services-Army, Navy, and Air Force-which operate principally by land, water, and air respectively. Until quite recently the Air Force was a part of the Army, and the Army and Navy operated for the most part independently under a common strategic plan, arrangements being improvised for joint local enterprises. However, beginning with "Pearl Harbor Day" which marked our entrance into World War II, we learned the lesson that such hit-or-miss cooperation between independent agencies is no longer good enough. It is true that the Armed Services are, and always have been, under the common command of the President. But a President, in

peace or war, has enormous preoccupations in the domestic and diplomatic fields. While he can determine the broad plans and overall joint strategy for a war, he has no time to work out the details of inter-Service cooperation or to umpire inter-Service disputes. A closer bond and tighter control are needed at a level below the President. These have been attained by the creation of the Department of Defense at the seat of Government, and by the concept of "joint command" in the field.

This chapter deals briefly with the parts which the Army's sister Services -the Navy and the Air Force-play in the national defense team, and with the Department of Defense, which coordinates the team's efforts.

MISSION. Section 206 of the National Security Act of 1947 deals with the Department of the Navy and reads as follows

Sec. 206. (a) The term "Department of the Navy" as used in this act shall be construed to mean the Department of the Navy at the seat of government; the headquarters, United States Marine Corps; the entire operating forces of the United States Navy, including naval aviation, and of the United States Marine Corps, including the reserve components of such forces; all field activities, headquarters, forces, bases, installations, activities, and functions under the control or supervision of the Department of the Navy; and the United States Coast Guard when operating as a part of the Navy pursuant to law.

(b) In general the United States Navy, within the Department of the Navy, shall include naval combat and service forces and such aviation as may be organic therein. It shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained combat incident to operations at sea. It shall be responsible for the preparation of naval forces necessary for the effective prosecution of war except as otherwise assigned,

and, in accordance with integrated joint mobilization plans, for the expansion of the peacetime components of the Navy to meet the needs of war.

All naval aviation shall be integrated with the naval service as part thereof within the Department of the Navy. Naval aviation shall consist of combat and service and training forces, and shall include land-based naval aviation, air transport essential for naval operations, all air weapons and air techniques involved in the operations and activities of the United States Navy, and the entire remainder of the aeronautical organization of the United States Navy, together with the personnel necessary therefor.

The Navy shall be generally responsible for naval reconnaissance, antisubmarine warfare, and protection of shipping.

The Navy shall develop aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, and equipment of naval combat and service elements; matters of joint concern as to these functions shall be coordinated between the Army, the Air Force, and the Navy.

(c) The United States Marine Corps, within the Department of the Navy, shall include land combat and service forces and such aviation as may be organic therein. The Marine Corps shall be organized, trained, and equipped to provide fleet marine forces of combined arms, together

with supporting air components, for service with the fleet in the seizure or defense of advanced naval bases and for the conduct of such land operations as may be essential to the prosecution of a naval campaign. It shall be the duty of the Marine Corps to develop, in coordination with the Army and the Air Force, those phases of amphibious operations which pertain to the tactics, techniques, and equipment employed by landing forces. In addition, the Marine Corps shall provide detachments and organizations for service on armed vessels of the Navy, shall provide security detachments for the protection of naval property at naval stations and bases, and shall perform such other duties as the President may direct: Provided, That such additional duties shall not detract from or interfere with the operations for which the Marine Corps is primarily organized. The Marine Corps shall be responsible, in accordance with integrated joint mobilization plans, for the expansion of peacetime components of the Marine Corps to meet the needs of war.

THE MEANING OF SEAPOWER. "Seapower" is the ability of a nation to exercise dominant control over the ocean approaches to the country or countries with which it is at war. Seapower enables its possessor to deny the ocean highways to an enemy, to insure uninterrupted traffic for itself, its allies. and friends, and to apply the pressure of war directly and unremittingly against an enemy nation. Seapower is knowledge of how to use the sea; it is the understanding of the close coordination that must exist between it and other military elements to combine them for victory. Seapower is flexibility, is often the key to mobile strategy, and often makes possible the choice of the offensive. Seapower by itself may not win wars, but it has been a decisive factor in many wars.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND. When the Federal Government was organized under the new Constitution in 1789, the War Department was made responsible for both the Army and the Navy (an interesting anticipation of the "Department of Defense" under which the Armed Services were united six generations later). The dual function could hardly be called a burden, however, since the new nation had neither ships nor marines.

The raids of the Barbary pirates led Congress in 1794 to authorize the construction of six frigates. Four years later, just as the first of them were about ready for sea, the United States embarked on an undeclared war against France. Recognizing that the increased

Naval Establishment called for specialized supervision, Congress not only voted to expand the Navy with readymade ships and new construction, but also created the Navy Department on 30 April 1798.

The Department arranged for fighting ships and adequate stores, and assigned general missions. Operational matters, however, were left largely in the hands of the ships' captains. In the War of 1812, despite a few highly successful frigate duels, our salt water warships and merchantmen were eventually tightly blockaded by the overwhelming forces of England's Navy. But on the Great Lakes, where the two sides started from scratch, our Navy proved itself by hastily building three little squadrons, two of which won decisive victories.

A Board of Navy Commissioners, modeled on England's Navy Board, was created in 1815. In 1842 Congress focused responsibility more closely by creating a separate bureau for each major logistical function, with each bureau chief accountable for performance in his technical specialty. The bureau system has survived as a major fixture of naval administration for over a century.

During the Civil War, the Navy not only protected Northern shipping from enemy raiders, but had three other strategic tasks: to blockade the whole Southern coast, to force its way into various Southern ports, and to cooperate with operations along the seaboard and the rivers.

By this time the "naval revolution" was under way. Steam was already taken for granted, new armor was coming into use, and rifled guns were beginning to replace the smoothbores. Scientists and inventors were marshalled for the first time to assist the Navy with its problems; and for a while our nation led the world in these new developments of the art of war. Progress ceased, however, with the end of the Civil War. It was not until 1883 that Congress authorized four modern steel ships, which became the nucleus of the new Navy.

In 1915 there was created the position of Chief of Naval Operations. This provided a systematic planning agency which had hitherto been lacking. It failed to give adequate control over

the bureaus of the Navy Department, but that defect has been remedied since World War II.

By November 1917, in World War I, 50 American destroyers were at work with the British Navy in the antisubmarine campaign. By 1918 the strength of U.S. naval forces in European waters had grown to 5 battleships, 95 destroyers, and many other ships, patrol craft, aircraft, and submarines. By the middle of 1918, 70,000 mines had been laid across the entrance to the North Sea, 80 percent of them by vessels of the U.S. Navy. During the war a total of over 2,000,000 soldiers were moved across the Atlantic in British or American transports, convoyed largely by American warships. Not one man was lost in the outward crossings due to enemy action.

After World War I, the shore establishment (see below) was improved by an extension of the naval districts from seacoast strips into areas covering among them the entire United States and outlying possessions. Also naval aviation was effectively integrated into the Naval Establishment. The aircraft carrier emerged as a cardinal element of a modern fleet. A Bureau of Aeronautics was established in 1921.

In accordance with the Washington Treaty of 1922, the Navy scrapped, sank, or demilitarized nearly 2,000,000 tons of vessels, including 31 capital ships.

Considerable construction was authorized by the Vincent-Trammell Act of 1934. In 1938, following Japan's denunciation of the Washington and London Treaties, Congress authorized a further 20% increase in naval strength.

On 7 December 1941 ("Pearl Harbor Day") we had in service 216 major combat surface craft, of which about onethird were based on Pearl Harbor. The brilliantly executed Japanese air attack sank or badly damaged 17 of these, including 8 battleships, thereby giving Japan temporary naval superiority in the Pacific. The Navy recovered promptly from this disaster. A two-ocean fleet came into being, and tactics and armament were modified to meet the new conditions of sea warfare imposed by air power. The decisive battle of Midway, in June of 1942, turned the tide. Naval and Marine amphibious forces,

and Army units convoyed and protected by the Navy, "island-hopped" across the Pacific to their final landing in the Philippines. The naval construction battalions ("Seebees") did a remarkable job in building airfields and other military installations during the advance. In a series of campaigns in the western Pacific, the Japanese Navy was destroyed as an effective fighting force. In the Atlantic, meanwhile, hunter-killer naval forces gradually eliminated the German U-boat menace. The Navy kept the sea lanes open for the shipment of our armies to Europe and Africa, and its amphibious forces made possible the invasions of North Africa, Italy, and France.

By the time that Japan declared its surrender on board the battleship Missouri on 2 September 1945, the personnel of the Navy, including Marines, had increased from 280,000 (in 1941) to about 4,000,000.

When the Korean War broke out, the Navy went into action at once. It maintained complete mastery of the sea throughout the conflict. Navy gunfire and aviation played an important part in damaging enemy land communications. Naval craft cooperated in the Inchon landing, which resulted in the North Korean army being knocked out of the war, and would have ended the affair except for the intervention of Red China. When the Chinese forces drove south, the Navy covered and protected the evacuation of some 200,000 troops and refugees, 17,500 vehicles, and 350,000 tons of cargo, without the loss of a single man due to enemy action.

In World War I our naval losses were not great. One battleship and one heavy cruiser were mine casualties, although both succeeded in making port; and 46 other craft, mostly small, were sunk. In World War II, however, the Navy paid a heavy toll. At various times we lost 2 battleships,1 5 heavy aircraft carriers, 6 escort carriers, 7 heavy cruisers, 3 light cruisers, 71 destroyers, 11 destroyer escort vessels, 52 submarines, and 538 of other categories, a total of 695 naval vessels. Personnel losses, including Marines, were 89,554 dead and 104,985 wounded.

THE NAVY TODAY. Geographically as well as organizationally, the Navy consists of three separate but mutually supporting parts: The Navy Department, the operating forces, and the shore establishment.

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NAVY DEPARTMENT. The Navy Department is the home office of the Naval Establishment, from which stem the overall policies, administrative mand, and logistic direction to the operating forces and the shore establishment. At its head, and having the immediate supervision and direction of the entire Naval Establishment, is the Secretary of the Navy. In the performance of his duty he delegates parts of his authority to naval and civilian assistants.

Under the Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1958 (PL 85-599) a Service Secretary no longer functions as Executive Agent for a unified or specified command. The commander of a joint or a specified command reports directly to the Secretary of Defense through the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

OPERATING FORCES. The legal framework of the present Navy conbetween sists of seven laws enacted

1940 and 1951. These called for the construction of new ships; the last, a bill passed on 11 March 1951, providing for 173 new warships and other vessels suitable for modern atomic warfare. They include not only supercarriers of the Forrestal type but atomic powered warships of all classes, many designed as guided missile ships.

The operating forces are organized into two main fleets (the Pacific Fleet and the Atlantic Fleet) and also into various forces, such as the U.S. Naval Forces, Western Pacific, and the U.S. Naval Forces, Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean.

The Atlantic Command and the Pacific Command are each Joint Commands operating under the Secretary of Defense through the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

Nomenclature of Naval Vessels and Craft. The following is a partial list of types of Navy vessels today, and of their standard abbreviations.

.BB BBG

Yard Floating Docks Car Floats

YFD

YCF

Covered Lighters (self-propelled)

...YF

Patrol Vessels

.YP

Floating Pile Drivers

YPD

Large

CB

Salvage Pontoons

YSP

Light

CL

Harbor Tugs, Big

YTB

Heavy, Guided Missile

..YR

Battleships

Guided Missile

Cruisers

Strength of the Navy. At the present time the Navy has a total, in round numbers, of some 4,500 ships. Of the ships other than service craft, about 900 are in active service and the remainder are in the Reserve Fleet. It is significant to note that there are no battleships and no battle cruisers in active service. The Navy is presently emphasizing the importance of submarines, carriers, and ships of other types which are now in the construction and conversion stages.

About 117 ships are to be constructed and 22 are to be converted by 1961.

The Navy presently has 5 nuclearpowered submarines in commission and 14 more in the construction or authorization stages. The present construction program includes 20 new ships, 13 of which will be armed with guided missiles (7 frigates, 5 destroyers, and 1 submarine). Six will be nuclear-powered (1 guided missile frigate and 5 submarines). An auxiliary and 2 amphibious assault ships complete the current procurement plan.

The conversion program includes 6 light cruisers being fitted with guided missiles, 2 carriers being modernized, 4 auxiliaries being readied for ocean station radar duties, 3 LSD's being converted to seaplane tenders, and 1 Mariner hull being converted to an attack transport.

Naming of Vessels. The following system has been adopted for naming Naval vessels

Battleships: States of the Union.
Cruisers, heavy and light: cities of the
United States.

Cruisers, large: territories or insular pos-
sessions of the United States.
Aircraft carriers: names of famous ships
formerly on the Navy list, or of im-
portant battles.
Aircraft carriers, escort: islands, bays or
sounds of the United States, or im-
portant battles.

Destroyers: deceased persons who were (1) distinguished Navy, Marine, or Coast Guard officers; or (2) Secretaries or Assistant Secretaries of the Navy; or (3) Members of Congress closely identified with naval affairs; or (4) inventors. Destroyer escort vessels: personnel of the Navy, Marine Corps, or Coast Guard killed in action in World War II. Landing ships: places of historic interest. Submarines: names of fish or other sea animals.

Similar rules apply to the naming of other types of vessels.

Fifth: Naval Station, Norfolk 11, Va.
Sixth: Bldg. 4, Naval Base, Charleston, S. C.
Eighth: New Federal Bldg., New Orleans
12, La.

Ninth: Administrative Bldg., Naval Training
Center, Great Lakes, Ill.
Tenth: San Juan, P. R.
Eleventh: Naval Headquarters Bldg., San
Diego, Cal.

Twelfth: Federal Bldg., San Francisco 2, Cal.
Thirteenth: Naval Station, Seattle 99, Wash.
Fourteenth: Administrative Bldg., United

States Naval Base, Pearl Harbor, T. H. Fifteenth: Balboa, C. Z. Seventeenth: Kodiak, Alaska.

The Second, Seventh, and Sixteenth Naval Districts were formerly located at Newport, R.I., Jacksonville, Fla., and Cavite, P.I. respectively. They have been discontinued as separate entities.

Air Training. The Air Training Command at Pensacola, under the Chief of Naval Operations, trains naval and marine air personnel. Four commands assist: Air Advanced Training Command. Corpus Christi, Tex.; Air Basic Training Command, Pensacola, Fla.; Air Reserve Training Command, Glenview, Ill.; and Air Technical Training Command, Memphis, Tenn. About 45 air stations and training units assist.

Officer Training. The United States Naval Academy occupies some 235 acres along the west bank of the Severn River at Annapolis, Md., with a present enrollment of 3,300 midshipmen. The students have the rank of midshipman in the United States Navy, and are granted the degree of bachelor of science upon graduation. Graduates are commissioned as ensigns in the Navy or, in limited numbers, as second lieutenants in the Marine Corps.

The Naval Academy has the following mission: "Through study and practical instruction to provide the midshipmen