aster might cause the North to break off the fight. The occasional Confederate offensives, as in the Antietam and Gettysburg Campaigns, were directed to those ends. None of the "breaks" which were hoped for was inherently impossible, but none of them was realized.

MAJOR BATTLES AND CAMPAIGNS. Campaigns of 1861-1862. The first campaign of the Civil War was Sumter (12-13 April 1861). Fort Sumter, located on an island in Charleston Harbor, with its 90-man garrison commanded by Maj. Robert Anderson, was besieged by the Confederates late in December 1860. Anticipating a Union attempt to reinforce the garrison, Brig. Gen. Pierre G. T. Beauregard, commander of Confederate forces in the Charleston area, demanded the surrender of the fort on 11 April 1861. Anderson rejected the demand. On the following morning Confederate batteries ringing the harbor began a heavy 34-hour bombardment of the fort. The Federal garrison vigorously returned the fire, but the result was inevitable. Anderson surrendered on 13 April with the honors of war, and was permitted to evacuate his command by sea on the following day.

After Sumter both sides energetically raised troops and prepared for war. Northern public opinion demanded immediate action, preferably an advance against Richmond, and the Confederate moves to defend the approaches to that city assumed the appearance of an intention to attack Washington. Late in June 1861, with the terms of 3-month militiamen nearing an end, Lincoln decided to attack. By this time some 50,000 Union troops had been assembled in the Washington area under the command of Brig. Gen. Irwin A. McDowell, and a force of 18,000 Federals under Brig. Gen. Robert E. Patterson was stationed at Martinsburg for the purpose of bottling up a Confederate force in the Shenandoah Valley. Opposing the Federals were about 20,000 Confederates under Beauregard at Manassas, 30 miles southwest of Washington, and about 11,000 under Brig. Gen. Joseph E. Johnston in the Shenandoah Valley.

Lincoln's decision to attack resulted

in the Bull Run Campaign (16-22 July 1861) which the Confederacy identified as the First Manassas Campaign. McDowell left Washington on 16 July with around 35,000 troops and moved slowly 20 miles west to Centreville, Va. Learning of the movement, Johnston adroitly slipped away from Patterson and shipped 9,000 reinforcements by rail to Beauregard, who deployed his army along a stream north of Manassas known as Bull Run. McDowell attacked on 21 July 1861. The main body of his attacking force crossed Bull Run at Sudley Springs and succeeded in rolling back Beauregard's left flank. But the retreating Confederates rallied on a low ridge behind a brigade led by Brig. Gen. Thomas J. Jackson, who that day earned the name "Stonewall." After two hours of fighting Beauregard staged a counterattack that drove the Federals from the field in retreat. Of the troops in the area, not more than 18,500 Federals and possibly 18,000 Confederates got into the fight. The number of casualties is difficult to determine, but a fair estimate puts the Union loss at 500 killed, 1,000 wounded, and 1,200 missing and the Confederate loss at 400 killed, 1,600 wounded, and 13 missing. The wide variety of uniforms worn by participants in the battle had caused much confusion, which led subsequently to the adoption of a gray uniform for Confederate troops and blue for the Federals.

The North was spurred to greater effort because of the defeat at Bull Run, while the South tended to relax in an atmosphere of overconfidence. Nevertheless, both sides spent the remainder of 1861 in earnestly preparing for a hard war. During this period Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan replaced McDowell as commander of the forces around Washington (the Army of the Potomac); and he became General in Chief late in 1861, when the aging Lt. Gen. Winfield Scott retired from active duty. Another important personnel change came in January 1862 when Lincoln dismissed Simon Cameron and named Edwin McM. Stanton as Secretary of War.

Except for the capture of Fort Hatteras and Clark, N. C., and of Port

Royal, S. C., and a battle at Wilson's Creek, Mo., in August, there were no significant military actions during the latter half of 1861.

The first important operation in 1862 took place in the Western Theater, where Federal forces were divided into two commands: one under Brig. Gen. Carlos Buell at Louisville, the other under Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck at St. Louis. Facing Buell and Halleck was Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston with 43,000 Confederate troops, occupying a line of forts and camps that extended from Cumberland Gap in Virginia, through Bowling Green, Ky., to New Madrid and Island No. 10 on the Mississippi. To protect a lateral railroad, vital to their communications, the Confederates had built Fort Henry on the Tennessee River and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland. The two forts were on the northern border of Tennessee and only 10 miles apart.

In February 1862 Halleck effected a strategic penetration of the center of Johnston's line by the Henry and Donelson Campaign (6-16 February 1862). Federal troops under Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant moved on boats up the Tennessee River to a point near Fort Henry, landed, and marched overland to seize the fort. Brig. Gen. Lloyd Tilghman sent most of his garrison to Fort Donelson, and on 6 February surrendered to Flag Officer Andrew H. Foote, whose river flotilla had subjected the fort to a gunboat bombardment. Grant at once turned against Fort Donelson, which he invested on 12 February with a reinforced command of more than 25,000 men. Meanwhile the fall of Fort Henry had rendered the Confederate position at Bowling Green untenable. Johnston had therefore sent 12,000 reinforcements to Fort Donelson, bringing its strength up to about 21,000 men, and retired toward Nashville with about 14,000 men. Fort Donelson was a strong position, and gunboats attempting a bombardment were roughly handled. Grant prepared to lay siege, but when a Confederate sortie failed he made an attack. This resulted in the surrender of the fort and 11,500 Confederate troops by Brig. Gen. Simon B. Buckner on 16 February 1862. A number of Confederate units were able to escape shortly before the capit

ulation. Union losses at Donelson were 500 killed, 2,108 wounded, and 224 missing. Confederate losses, aside from prisoners, were about 2,000 killed and

wounded.

The beginning of the Henry and Donelson Campaign also marked the beginning of the longer Mississippi River Campaign (6 February 1862-9 July 1863) which included several campaigns and engagements, and ended with the fall of Vicksburg and the surrender of Port Hudson in July 1863.

After the Henry and Donelson success, Lincoln unified command of the four western armies under Halleck. The new command, with a total strength of more than 100,000 men, consisted of Brig. Gen. Samuel Curtis' Army of the Southwest in Missouri and Arkansas, Grant's Army of the Tennessee, Buell's Army of the Ohio, and Maj. Gen. John Pope's Army of the Mississippi.

Halleck's next move was against A. S. Johnston at Corinth. Buell moved to Savannah (Tenn.) on the Tennessee River, and Grant moved to Pittsburg Landing nine miles below Savannah. Johnston promptly advanced against Grant's force with some 40,000 men, and achieved surprise in an attack launched early on 6 April 1862 in the vicinity of Shiloh Church. Johnston was killed, and Beauregard assumed command during the first day's fighting, which went well for the Confederates. On the second day, with help from Buell, Grant counterattacked and regained lost ground, upon which the Confederates withdrew to Corinth. There was no pursuit. At Shiloh (6-7 April 1862), of nearly 63,000 Federals engaged, 1,754 were killed, 8,408 wounded, and 2,885 were missing. Confederate losses were 1,723 killed, 8,012 wounded, and 959 missing.

Pope's Army of the Mississippi, in cooperation with Foote's river flotilla, took Island No. 10 and New Madrid, Mo., on 7 April 1862. Pope's force then joined the rest at Pittsburg Landing, where Halleck was massing his forces. Shortly thereafter Halleck began a slow, careful advance on Corinth. When he arrived there on 30 May he found that Beauregard had left. Meanwhile Capt. David G. Farragut, with 8 steam sloops and 15 gunboats, had sailed up the Mississippi from the Gulf on 24 April, and

after running a gantlet of fire had arrived, three days later, at New Orleans, from which Confederate troops had been withdrawn. On 1 May 1862 Union troops under Maj. Gen. Benjamin F. Butler arrived and occupied the city.

For the remainder of 1862 little was accomplished by either side in the Western Theater. On 3-4 October a Confederate force under Brig. Gen. Earl Van Dorn attempted to drive a Union force under Brig. Gen. William S. Rosecrans out of Corinth, but retired after suffering heavy losses. At Perryville, Ky., another bloody encounter occurred on 8 October, when Buell's force pushed back a Confederate drive to the north led by Gen. Braxton Bragg. In November, Bragg moved north again with a force of 35,000 men, this time to Murfreesboro, Tenn. (Stone's River) (16 December 1862-4 January 1863). Rosecrans advanced to meet him with about 44,800 Federals, and the forces clashed at Stone's River on the last day of the year. Rosecrans was forced to break off the engagement on the second day of fighting and fall back to Tullahoma, having suffered losses of 1,677 killed, 7,543 wounded, and 3,686 missing. The Confederates lost 1,294 killed, 7,945 wounded, and about 2,500 missing.

Not all Union objectives had been secured in the western theater during 1862, and at Murfreesboro the Confederates partly undid earlier Union victories; but Union gains had been impressive. At the end of the year the only areas on the Mississippi held by the Confederates were in the vicinity of Vicksburg and Port Hudson.

Meanwhile, in the Eastern Theater during 1862 there had been a long series of complex, closely interrelated operations. Union plans aimed at the capture of Richmond, and Lincoln, with some misgivings, approved McClellan's plan to move the attacking force from Washington to Fort Monroe by sea and then to attack overland up the peninsula formed by the York and James Rivers. McClellan expected to cover the 70 miles from Monroe to Richmond before J. E. Johnston, who had moved his army from Manassas to Fredericksburg, could

intervene. This plan took advantage of Federal control of the sea, and the battle at Hampton Roads on 9 March 1862, in which the Union Monitor successfully neutralized the Confederate Merrimac, was an important preliminary to the campaign. On 11 March Lincoln relieved McClellan as General in Chief, leaving him free to devote his entire attention to planning and executing the drive on Richmond. Early in April, as this was getting under way, Lincoln became concerned about the security of the capital. He directed Stanton to retain McDowell's corps (some 30,000 men) which was awaiting embarkation at Alexandria to join McClellan.

Recognizing the threat to Richmond, Confederate authorities staged a bold diversion that resulted in the Valley Campaign (15 May-17 June 1862). While Johnston hurried his army to the peninsula to stop McClellan, Jackson with about 10,000 Confederates became active in the Shenandoah Valley. On 23 March he attacked a Federal division at Kernstown and suffered defeat; but he won a strategic victory, for, by posing a threat to Harper's Ferry and Washington, he diverted forces from McClellan. Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks' Department of the Shenandoah, which had the dual mission of protecting Washington and of bottling up and destroying Jackson, eventually had a total strength about three times that of his opponent. However, Jackson maneuvered with great skill, made two and a half round trips up and down the valley in about six weeks, and defeated the superior Union forces in detail. By 9 June 1862, Jackson had fought and won five battles-McDowell, Front Royal, Winchester, Cross Keys, and Port Republic.

The Army of the Potomac began sailing from Alexandria to Fort Monroe on 17 March 1862. This marked the beginning of the Peninsula Campaign (17 March2 August 1862) in which perhaps as many as 155,000 Federals and 95,500 Confederates eventually became involved, although not that many were present at any one time.

McClellan began advancing from Fort Monroe early in April, but stopped for

a month to besiege a much inferior Confederate force under Maj. Gen. John B. Magruder at Yorktown. During the siege Johnston had time to join Magruder with his entire force. McClellan planned a major assault on 5 May, but on 3 May Johnston began withdrawing up the peninsula. McClellan pursued, and the Confederate rear guard under Maj. Gen. James Longstreet fought a successful delaying action at Williamsburg on 5 May which developed into a major engagement, resulting in 1,866 Federal and 1,570 Confederate casualties. McClellan continued his pursuit in leisurely fashion, established his main base at White House, and toward the end of the month pushed two corps southwest across the Chickahominy River toward Richmond. His remaining three corps stayed north of the river. McClellan expected help from the force under McDowell which had meanwhile moved to Fredericksburg, but Jackson's valley campaign drained away half of McDowell's troops, and McClellan received only two divisions of reinforcements from this source during the campaign.

A heavy rain on 30 May flooded the Chickahominy, washing out bridges and rendering the stream unfordable. Recognizing this as an opportunity to defeat the Union force in detail, Johnston attacked the isolated Federals south of the stream near Fair Oaks on 31 May 1862. The Federals, after suffering initial reverses, were finally able to repel the attack. Each side committed some 41,000 men during the two-day engagement, the Federals losing 790 killed and 4,384 wounded, the Confederates 980 killed and 5,729 wounded.

Johnston was wounded at Fair Oaks and was replaced by Gen. Robert E. Lee. Jackson now moved quickly and with complete secrecy to Richmond, while Lee pulled back closer to Richmond and built fortifications. Late in June Lee struck hard on McClellan's right (north) flank and succeeded in cutting the Federal line of communications to the main base at White House. McClellan therefore shifted his base to Harrison's Landing on the south side of the peninsula, fighting all the way, and on 1 July was finally able to mass his forces, establish a strong defensive position, and repel Lee's attacks. It was a hard

as

fought, complex operation known the Seven Days' Battles (25 June-1 July 1862) and included major engagements at Mechanicsville (26 June), Gaines' Mill or First Cold Harbor (27 June), Savage Station (29 June), Frayer's Farm or Glendale (30 June), and Malvern Hill (1 July). On 3 July Lee broke contact and returned his troops to the lines at Richmond. There was no more fighting. Casualties had been heavy on the peninsula. Federal losses in killed. wounded, and missing totaled 15,849; Confederate losses were 20,614.

In June 1862, during the Peninsula Campaign, Lincoln consolidated the Union forces in the Shenandoah Valley and other parts of western Virginia— some 45,000 men-as the Army of Virginia, assigning the command to Pope. After Jackson moved to Richmond. Pope was given the mission of marching down the Shenandoah Valley and then east against Richmond to relieve McClellan. On 11 July 1862 Lincoln appointed Halleck as General in Chief. By that time Pope's army was in western Virginia, and McClellan's Army of the Potomac, 100,000 strong, was at Harrison's Landing, with Lee in between. Neither Halleck nor Lincoln liked the disposition of the forces, and on 3 August McClellan was ordered to join Pope by way of Aquia Creek on the Potomac, a move that got under way about two weeks later.

Meanwhile Pope's threatening position had caused Lee to detach a force of 24,000 men under Jackson, who marched northwest out of Richmond on 13 July to strike advance elements of Pope's army. He met and defeated the Federal II Corps, Banks commanding, at Cedar Mountain on 9 August, but did not pursue because Pope's main body was nearby. Lee followed Jackson out of Richmond with the remainder of the Army of Northern Virginia, intending to outflank and cut off Pope before he and McClellan could join forces.

Lee conducted a series of feints and maneuvers which caused Pope to withdraw to the north bank of the Rappahannock. On 25 August Lee sent Jackson, followed the next day by Longstreet's divisions, on a wide turning movement around the Federal right flank. Jackson came in behind Pope on