cluding Kettle Hill where Lt. Col. Theodore Roosevelt and his "Rough Riders" distinguished themselves. The attack on El Caney made little headway at first against determined Spanish resistance, but success was finally achieved after the supporting artillery was moved forward to positions where it could place effective fire on the enemy. The Spanish forces dropped back half a mile to a second line of defense, and except for a heavy exchange of artillery fire on 2 July there was no more fighting. In the engagements at San Juan and El Caney there were 1,475 American and more than 550 Spanish casualties.

On 3 July 1898 Admiral Cervera attempted to escape from Santiago Bay with his fleet. A dramatic running fight with the American fleet ensued. All the Spanish ships were destroyed, with a loss of about 600 men. The Americans lost only one man killed and one seriously wounded.

Following Cervera's disaster, Gen. José Toral, defender of Santiago, where near-famine conditions existed, entered into negotiations with General Shafter. On 16 July he signed terms of surrender, which provided for the unconditional surrender of 11,500 troops in the city and some 12,000 other troops stationed elsewhere in the province of Santiago.

After the fall of Santiago General Miles took personal charge of an expedition to Puerto Rico (25 July-13 August 1898). His force of about 3,000 men landed at Guánica on 25 July 1898, and an additional force under Maj. Gen. John R. Brooke landed at Guayama. Four columns of American troops quickly overran the island. There was some light skirmishing in which a few Americans were wounded, but the population as a whole received the Americans with enthusiasm.

The Manila Campaign (31 July-13 August 1898) was a sequel to the first naval engagement of the war. On 1 May 1898 a small American squadron under Comdr. George Dewey completely destroyed a Spanish naval force in Manila Bay. To take the city of Manila, Dewey needed ground forces; he therefore sent a request to Washington for 5,000 troops. Meanwhile he blockaded the port and encouraged Filipino insurgents, led by Emilio Aguinaldo,

whom Dewey had brought from exile in China, to besiege the city pending the arrival of American troops. Aguinaldo, who had previously led an insurrection against Spanish rule, hoped for recognition of his Philippine Republic. While waiting the arrival of ground forces, Dewey was faced with delicate diplomatic problems as English, German, and French naval forces arrived, ostensibly to protect their nationals in the islands, but also to be on hand to pick up any loose territory in case the United States decided against taking control after the collapse of Spanish power.

The War Department responded eagerly to the request for ground forces, and had sent about 11,000 troops to Manila under the command of Maj. Gen. Wesley Merritt by 25 July. The Spaniards in Manila indicated a willingness to surrender to the Americans, but not to the Filipinos, since they did not want the city exposed to undisciplined native insurgents after capitulation. Such an arrangement was agreeable to the Administration in Washington, which by this time was planning to take control of the Philippines. Dewey and Merritt accordingly persuaded the Filipinos to let only Americans make the final assault on Manila; at the same time they quietly made arrangements with the Spanish authorities for what was planned to be a noisy but bloodless capture of the city. The operation began as planned on 12 August 1898, but a few bands of Filipinos became mixed with the advancing troops, and some uncontemplated fighting took place in which 5 Americans were killed and 35 wounded. Eventually the firing and confusion were reduced sufficiently to permit the Spaniards to surrender to the Americans. Formal articles of capitulation were signed on 14 August 1898. Total American losses during the operations in the Philippines were 18 killed and 109 wounded. Filipino units that had entered Manila were persuaded to leave, but subsequently Aguinaldo led a rebellion against American rule. (See "Philippine Insurrection," chapter 29).

CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. The Spanish Government asked for an armistice, through the intermediary of the French Republic, shortly after the fall of Santiago. Armistice terms, dictated

by the United States, were signed on 12 August 1898. Subsequently a peace treaty was negotiated at Paris. Acting for the United States as peace commissioners were Cushman K. Davis, William R. Day, William P. Frye, George Gray, and Whitelaw Reid. According to the terms of the Treaty of Paris, signed

on 10 December 1898, Spain relinquished all claims to sovereignty over Cuba, ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to the United States, and agreed to accept $20,000,000 from the United States for the Philippine Islands. The Senate approved ratification of the treaty on 6 February 1899.

THE WAR BEFORE AMERICA'S ENTRY. Causes. The period 1871-1914 was marked by the growth of a system of alliances and entanglements which eventually divided Europe into two opposing groups of powers-the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austro-Hungary, and Italy) and the Triple Entente (France, Russia, and Great Britain). By the early twentieth century, imperialism, nationalism, an armaments race, and other underlying factors which gave rise to international tensions had so aggravated the hostility of these rival powers that each new diplomatic crisis threatened to plunge Europe into a general conflict. Between 1900 and 1914 several such crises occurred, but they were resolved without a resort to war among the great European powers.

On 28 June 1914 the heir to the throne of Austro-Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and his wife were assassinated by a fanatical Serbian nationalist at Serajevo in Bosnia. On 23 July Austria delivered a 48-hour ultimatum to Serbia. The latter replied evasively and started mobilization. Austria began mobilizing against Serbia. Russia, opposed to further Austrian expansion in the Balkans, started military measures against Austria. On 28 August Austria declared war on Serbia. Germany sought to localize the impending war, but the Russian decision (29 July) to begin general mobilization resulted in a German 12-hour ultimatum to Russia demanding cessation of military preparations on the German border. On 1 August Germany and France both ordered general mobilization.

Various efforts were made by the governments involved, in these final days, to avert a general conflict; but by then it was too late. In the decades of peace the Great Powers had developed in elaborate detail their initial war plans against potential enemies. From the moment of mobilization every move had been planned and timed by the day and the hour, in an endeavor to secure a decisive initial advantage over the adversary and achieve an early decision. Once the machinery was set in motion, even a short delay on the part of any one nation might mean the difference between victory and defeat. If any final chance of peace had remained, in the continent-wide clash of conflicting interests and mutual fears and antagonisms, this factor would probably have nullified it.

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On 1 August Germany declared war on Russia. On 2 August Germany's armies invaded Luxembourg, and her demand for permission to cross Belgian territory was rejected. On 3 August Germany declared war on France and began the invasion of Belgium. England then declared war on Germany August) and Austria on Russia (6 August). Eventually Japan, Italy, China, Romania, the United States, and other countries entered the war on the Allied side. Turkey and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers. Thus began a conflict destined to last more than four years, to involve most of the nations of the world, to cost the lives of about 8,500,000 of the 65,000,000 men mobilized, and to dwarf by its magnitude all previous

wars.

Space permits only the briefest summary of events preceding our involvement in the war.

Land Campaigns, 1914. On the western front Germany attacked through Belgium and northeastern France, and France attacked farther south. The French offensive broke down completely. The German offensive was stopped in the First Battle of the Marne; the German armies then retired to strong positions behind the Aisne, which an Allied counteroffensive failed to penetrate. Both sides then engaged in a series of flank movements in the direction of the English Channel. Neither was able to outflank the other in this "race to the sea" (September-October 1914). The Germans captured Antwerp, but the Allies retained control of all Channel ports west of Ostend.

In the east, Russian armies invaded East Prussia and were disastrously defeated at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes. Farther south other Russian forces severely mauled the Austrian armies in Galicia. Serbia thrice threw back Austrian offensives.

Stabilization of the Western Front. The first months of fighting revealed that new weapons and tactics had considerably altered the nature of warfare. The machinegun, rapid-fire artillery and other weapons, combined with field fortifications and the liberal use of barbed wire, had so strengthened the defense that a virtual stalemate developed on the western (Franco-Belgian) front and persisted until 1918. New weapons introduced during the war, notably poison gas and tanks, gave promise of breaking this stalemate, but failed to do so. From 1915 through 1917 the fighting consisted of prodigious efforts by both sides to mass great concentrations of men and munitions on a limited front, in order to achieve a wide breakthrough and create exposed flanks in the opposing defense system.

During 1915 the Allies made costly attacks of this type at Neuve Chapelle (March), in Flanders (April-May), and in Champagne (September), while the Germans, concentrating on eliminating the Russian menace in the east, stayed mostly on the defensive in the west. In 1916 both sides undertook prolonged battles of attrition on the Western

Front, in which they made no appreciable territorial gains and suffered appalling losses in manpower. The German offensive at Verdun from February to August was followed by a French counteroffensive in the same sector, lasting from October to mid-December. The British and French attacked along the Somme from 1 July to 25 November.

The Eastern Front, 1915-1916. German attacks, beginning in May 1915, inflicted immense losses on the Russian armies and permitted Germany to occupy Poland. In the following summer Russia staged an offensive on the Austrian front, which continued for three months and largely disorganized the 1916 strategic plans of the Central Powers. However, the Russians lacked the resources needed for a decisive success, and the huge casualties of the campaign virtually wrecked their military power.

Other Land Fighting. On other fronts the Allies fared rather poorly in 1915 and 1916. A British seaborne expedition against the Turks at Gallipoli in April 1915 landed successfully, but failed to break through the enemy defenses, and the campaign collapsed. When Bulgaria entered the war against Serbia, an Austro-German force combined with the Bulgarians to overwhelm the Serbs in November 1915. The Italians entered the conflict on the Allied side in May 1915, opening up a new front. But in that year the Italians made little headway against strong Austrian defenses in the Trentino and along the Isonzo River. An Austrian offensive in May 1916 threatened to cut off Italian armies on the Isonzo and overrun the Venetian plains. In August an Italian drive across the Isonzo achieved only limited success.

Naval Warfare. From the beginning the British navy dominated the war on the seas. It bottled up the German navy in its home harbors, except for occasional sorties, and swept German commerce from the oceans of the world. Most of the few German naval vessels preying on Allied commerce were promptly hunted down and destroyed, and the way was opened for conquest of the German colonial empire.

Beginning in 1915, both sides turned their efforts to establishing effective blockades. In early 1915 the Germans declared the waters around the British

Isles a war zone in which all ships would be sunk on sight. Countering this move, Great Britain asserted the right to intercept all ships believed to be carrying goods destined for Germany, and to bring them into her ports for search. The British blockaded the ports of neutral European states, arbitrarily added commodities to the list of goods normally considered contraband of war, blacklisted firms suspected of trading with the Central Powers, and forced neutral shipping into British ports for search.

When Britain began arming her merchant vessels and ordering them to fire at submarines on sight, Germany retaliated with instructions to her U-boat commanders to sink enemy cargo ships without warning. Mistakes in identity inevitably occurred; neutral vessels were sunk by German submarines, and citizens of neutral states traveling aboard enemy vessels lost their lives.

The sinking of the British liner Lusitania in May 1915, and other episodes, produced such a strong American reaction that in May 1916 Germany agreed to end unrestricted submarine warfare. Shortly afterward the Battle of Jutland, between the main battle fleets (Grand Fleet and High Seas Fleet) of Great Britain and Germany, was tactically indecisive but confirmed the former's command of the seas. On 31 January 1917 the German government decided that unrestricted submarine warfare would be resumed, in spite of the risk of bringing the United States into the war.

AMERICAN ENTRY. During the more than two years preceding Germany's decision to resume a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare in 1917, the United States had managed to maintain its role as the leading neutral nation in the face of considerable provocation. During this time the attitude of Americans concerning the war, its ultimate outcome, and the part the United States should play in it was influenced and molded by many underlying factors. Our population was made up largely of peoples whose antecedents furnished a basis for strong emotional, cultural, and linguistic ties to one or another of the belligerents. Both sides used propa

ganda extensively, but the Allied propaganda had the advantages that it was more intelligently conceived, that the Allies controlled most of the means of communication, and also, perhaps, that they had the better case to present in the controversy over neutral rights. Undoubtedly this propaganda influenced the views of many Americans. Traditional ties of friendship with France and Great Britain, and greater economic and financial involvement in their war effort, also tended to cause many in the United States to favor an Allied victory. But the equally potent American tradition of noninvolvement in Europe's struggles, taken together with President Wilson's efforts to maintain the nation's neutral role, convinced many others that America should stay out of the conflict.

The decisive factor which tipped the balance was the submarine issue. The United States had a record of championing the rights of neutrals on the high seas. The German announcement of 31 January 1917 consolidated American public opinion in favor of strong measures against the Central Powers. On 3 February 1917 the President severed diplomatic relations with the German Empire. In late February he asked Congress to authorize the arming of American merchantmen. When a Senate filibuster blocked enactment of such legislation, the Attorney General decided that the President had the power to arm ships under existing law.

The trend of events in February and March added to the desire for war which was spreading through the country. Submarines sank more American ships. The contents of the Zimmerman Note were made public, revealing that Germany had proposed an alliance with Mexico in the event the United States should enter the war. In mid-March a revolution in Russia replaced the czarist autocracy (temporarily, as it proved) with a constitutional regime more in harmony with the democratic principles to which the Allies were formally committed. No one was greatly surprised when Wilson, after consulting with his cabinet, called a special session of Congress and on 2 April requested a declaration of war against Germany. Congress passed the war resolution on 6