In periods between major wars the Armed Forces of the United States have participated in numerous minor wars, campaigns, and expeditions, and have been called upon from time to time to assist in maintaining law and order.

These activities tend to fall into three categories: conflicts with foreign states, conflicts with the Indians, and domestic disturbances. The events presented in this chapter are traced chronologically within each of these classifications.1

These include the followingNaval War with France, 1798-1800 Barbary Wars, 1801-5 and 1815 Chesapeake-Leopard Affair, 1807 Sabine Affair, 1836

Canadian Border incidents, 1837-40, 1859, 1866, 1870

Troubles with Mexico, 1859 and 1861-7
Philippine Insurrection, 1899-1902

Campaigns against the Moros, 1902-4, 1905; 1906, 1913

China Relief Expedition, 1900-01
Mexican Border troubles, 1911-19
Campaigns in the Caribbean and other
areas, 1900-34

NAVAL WAR WITH FRANCE, 17981800. In the European conflict that grew out of the French Revolution, the United States was caught between conflicting demands by France and Great Britain. France chose to regard Jay's Treaty (1794) between the United States and Great Britain as evidence of American pro-British policy. She therefore retaliated by seizing American shipping and performing other hostile acts. In the undeclared naval war that followed (1798-1800) the United States seized 115 French privateers and recovered 70 American merchantmen. These losses, and fear of an open alliance between the United States and Great Britain,

led France to negotiate the Convention of 1800 which ended the conflict.

BARBARY WARS, 1801-05 AND 1815. In the 1780's and 1790's American merchantmen in the Mediterranean were subjected to the depredations of the piratical Barbary States, despite payment of the customary annual tribute. Tripoli declared war on the United States in 1801. An American fleet effectively blockaded the port of Tripoli from 1803 to 1805, and a land expedition, organized by William Eaton, captured Derna in eastern Tripolitania and threatened to take the city of Tripoli. The Bey was forced to agree to peace terms 4 June 1805, including the termination of tribute payments.

Algiers, taking advantage of American naval weakness before and during the War of 1812, seized American shipping and compelled increased annual tribute. When the War of 1812 ended, the United States dispatched a naval force, under Commodores Stephen Decatur and William Bainbridge, which forced Algiers to submit to humiliating peace terms in 1815.

CHESAPEAKE-LEOPARD AFFAIR,

1807. The British warship Leopard opened fire on the American frigate Chesapeake on 22 June 1807 when Commodore James Barron refused to surrender four alleged British deserters in the American crew. Unprepared for combat, his ship disabled, and having suffered 21 casualties, Barron surrendered one deserter (who was hanged) and three American seamen. In 1811, after long negotiations, Great Britain disavowed the act, made reparations, and returned two seamen, the third having died.

SABINE AFFAIR, 1836. During the Texas War of Independence Brig. Gen. Edmund P. Gaines, commander of the Western Department, was informed that American settlements on the Texas border were in danger of Mexicanincited Indian attacks. Therefore, in April 1836, Gaines called upon Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Tennessee, and Kentucky for militia. On 10 July 1836 he moved several hundred men 50 miles across the Sabine River into Texas and occupied Nacogdoches. Gaines' action was not supported by President Jackson, the anticipated attacks did not develop, and the troops were withdrawn on 17 December 1836.

CANADIAN BORDER INCIDENTS, 1837-40, 1859, 1866, 1870. In November 1837, "Canadian Patriots," members of an American society favoring annexation to the United States or independence for parts of Canada, invaded a Canadian island in the Niagara River. Canadians seized the Caroline, an American steamer, and sent it over Niagara Falls to prevent its use by the Patriots. From then until 1840 similar warlike incidents occurred along the border, as a result of which the Army was called upon to restore order. Brig. Gen. Winfield Scott, commander of the Eastern Department, played a major role in suppressing the Patriots and in bringing peace to the border.

General Scott was also instrumental in negotiating the peaceful conclusion of two disputes with the British concerning the Canadian-American boundary. The Aroostook War (1838-39) grew out of the vague definition, in the treaty of 1783, of the Maine-New Brunswick border, The San Juan dispute (1859),

which arose from differing interpretations of the Convention of 1846 concerning possession of the San Juan Islands in Puget Sound, ended in a joint military occupation.

In 1866 and 1870 the Fenians, an IrishAmerican organization favoring the independence of Ireland, assembled armed bands at various points along the border for the purpose of invading Canada. Invasions occurred at several places, notably near Buffalo (1866) and Franklin, Vermont (1870); and were abortive elsewhere, as at Campo Bello Island (1866), by reason of prompt action by the Regulars, who intervened to curb Fenian activities and disperse the armed bands.

TROUBLES WITH MEXICO, 1859 AND 1861-67. In 1859 Mexican bandits led by Juan Cortinez attacked and blockaded Brownsville, Texas, after the Army had abandoned nearby Fort Brown. Regulars, including the 3d Artillery, drove off the outlaw band.

Shortly after the beginning of the Civil War, France, Great Britain, and Spain undertook armed intervention in revolution-torn Mexico, ostensibly to restore order and collect debts owing their nationals. Great Britain and Spain shortly withdrew, but Napoleon III's forces seized the country and established a monarchy with Maximilian of Austria as Emperor. The United States protested this violation of the Monroe Doctrine but could take no action until 1866, when 50,000 troops under Maj. Gen. Philip H. Sheridan were concentrated on the border to back up the demand for an immediate recall of French troops. France complied in 1867. The republican forces of Benito Juárez were quickly triumphant, and Maximilian was executed on 19 June 1867.

PHILIPPINE INSURRECTION, 18991902. During the War with Spain, Emilio Aguinaldo (who had led an unsuccessful insurrection in 1896-97) organized a native army in the Philippines and secured control of several islands, including much of Luzon. Cession of the Philippines to the United States (Treaty of Paris, 10 December 1898) disappointed many Filipinos, and on 4 February 1899 Aguinaldo's followers clashed with American troops near Manila. The Americans, numbering about 12,000 com

bat troops under Maj. Gen. Elwell S. Otis, defeated Aguinaldo's force of some 40,000 men (4-6 February 1899) and suppressed an attempted uprising in Manila (22 February).

American columns pushed north, east, and south from Manila to split the insurgent forces and seize key towns. Maj. Gen. Arthur MacArthur's column seized Caloocan (10 February 1899), Malolos, the rebel capital (31 March), San Fernando, Pampagna (5 May), and the stronghold of San Isidro (15 May) which was held only temporarily. Brig. Gen. Loyd Wheaton's column gained control of the Pasig River in March 1899, permanently interrupting communications between insurgent forces in north and south Luzon. Maj. Gen. Henry W. Lawton's column captured Santa Cruz (10 April 1899) in the Laguna de Bay area and overran strong insurgent intrenchments on the Zapote River (13 June).

Although control of Luzon was the principal military objective in 1899, measures were also taken to establish American control over other important islands. Iloilo on Panay was occupied on 11 February, Cebu on 26 February, Bacolod in Negros on 10 March, and Jolo in the Sulu Archipelago on 19 May.

The rainy season in mid-1899 compelled a pause in operations in Luzon. During this pause the first Philippine native units were organized and large numbers of additional troops began to arrive, bringing the strength of the American force (Eighth Army Corps) to some 47,500 men by the end of 1899 and to 75,000 a year later.

In October 1899, organized resistance in Cavite and adjacent provinces was destroyed by forces under General Wheaton and Brig. Gen. Theodore Schwan. In the same month General Otis launched a three-pronged offensive in north Luzon directed at Aguinaldo's remaining forces. Lawton's column moved up the Rio Grande de la Pampagna, recaptured San Isidro (19 October), and neared San Fabian on Lingayen Gulf (18 November). MacArthur's forces advanced through the central Luzon plain, seized Tarlac (12 November), and reached Dagupan on 20 November. Wheaton's amphibious expedition from Manila landed at San

Fabian (7 November), routed insurgents at San Jacinto (12 November), and linked up with MacArthur's column at Dagupan on 20 November 1899.

After these campaigns only scattered insurrectionist elements remained active in north and south Luzon. Lawton (killed on 18 December 1899) drove up the Marikina in December to cut important insurgent communication lines, and Wheaton and Schwan completed the pacification of Cavite in January and February 1900. Subsequently, insurgent remnants in the Visayans and Mindanao were dispersed. The capture of Aguinaldo by Brig. Gen. Frederick Funston on 23 March 1901 dealt the final blow to the insurgent cause. President Roosevelt announced official conclusion of the Insurrection on 4 July 1902.

CAMPAIGNS AGAINST THE MOROS, 1902-04, 1905, 1906, 1913. In 1902 serious trouble began with the Moros, a Mohammedan people in Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago, who had never been completely subjugated by the Spanish. When the Army occupied former Spanish garrison points, the Moros began to raid villages, attack soldiers, and otherwise resist American jurisdiction. Between July 1902 and December 1904, and again in late 1905, the Army dispatched expeditions into the interior of Mindanao to destroy Moro strongholds. Col. Frank D. Baldwin with some 1,000 men (including elements of his own 27th Infantry and a mountain battery) invaded the territory of the Sultan of Bayan near Lake Lanao and defeated the Sultan's forces in the hotly contested Battle of Bayan on 2 May 1902. Capt. John J. Pershing headed a similar expedition into the Lanao country in 1903, and Capt. Frank R. McCoy finally killed the notorious Moro outlaw, Dato Ali, in the Cotabato district in October 1905.

In May 1905, March 1906, and June 1913, Regulars had to cope with disorders too extensive to be handled by the local constabulary and Philippine Scouts on the island of Jolo, a Moro stronghold.

CHINA RELIEF EXPEDITION, 19001901. The so-called "Boxers" were fanatical members of a Chinese secret society who wished to drive all foreign

ers from China and eradicate foreign influences. The Boxer movement gained momentum in the final years of the nineteenth century. By early June of 1900 the foreigners in China, especially those in Peking, found themselves in grave danger.

An international column of sailors and marines, including 112 Americans, made a hurried attempt to go to the relief of Peking, but met with severe resistance after it left Tientsin and failed to get through (10-26 June). The movement against Westerners in Peking reached a climax on 20 June 1900 when the German minister was murdered. About 3,500 foreigners and Chinese Christians, fearing for their safety, took refuge in the foreign legation compound, where they were besieged by thousands of Chinese. A composite military force of 407 men (including 56 Americans) plus about 200 civilians defended the compound. The Great Powers took immediate steps to organize a large relief expedition for Peking, to stamp out what came to be known as the Boxer Rebellion.

Using Manila as a main base, the United States promptly dispatched to China Regulars intended for use in the Philippine Insurrection. The 9th Infantry and a Marine battalion landed at Taku on 7 July 1900. Two battalions of the 9th joined contingents of other powers in an attack on Tientsin, which fell on 13 July, the Americans suffering 95 casualties.

On 4 August 1900 an allied force of eighteen or nineteen thousand men began an advance on Peking, 70 miles distant. The American contingent, some 2,500 men under Maj. Gen. Adna R. Chaffee, consisted of the 9th Infantry and 14th Infantry, elements of the 6th Cavalry, the 5th Artillery, and a Marine battalion. High points of the fighting en route were at Pei-tsang, which fell on 5 August 1900, and a severe engagement for American and British contingents at Yang-tsun on 6 August. In the seizure of the Outer City of Peking on 14 August, elements of the 14th Infantry scaled the Tartar Wall, planted the first foreign flag ever to fly there, and opened the way for British units to relieve the legation compound. On the following day "Reilly's Battery" (Capt.

Henry J. Reilly's Light Battery F, 5th Artillery) blasted open the gates on the American front in the assault on the Inner City.

Most American units were withdrawn to Manila before winter, and mopping up operations in the provinces were left to the other Powers. A few American Regulars remained to form part of an allied occupation force and a small guard for the United States Legation in Peking.

The Boxer Protocol of 7 September 1901, negotiated by the Great Powers with China, included provisions for a fortified legation quarter, foreign garrisons along the Tientsin-Peking railway, and a large indemnity. In 1908 the United States remitted a portion of its share of the indemnity, which the Chinese Government diverted to educational purposes.

MEXICAN BORDER TROUBLES, 1911-19. Perpetual political instability in Mexico during this period compelled the United States to maintain strong forces on the border. Crises in 1914 and 1916 nearly led to war.

On 9 April 1914 Mexican officials seized an American naval launch at Tampico. On demand, the crew and passengers were released, but the Mexican Government refused to make amends and apologies. Thereupon the entire Atlantic Fleet concentrated off Vera Cruz. A landing party went ashore on 21 April 1914 to intercept a shipment of arms to the Mexican Army, and fighting ensued which resulted in Congressional authorization for the use of armed force to secure redress from the Mexican Government.

An expeditionary force under Brig. Gen. Frederick Funston, composed of the Fifth Brigade (4th, 7th, 9th, and 28th Infantry regiments), began landing at Vera Cruz on 28 April 1914. Elements of the 4th Field Artillery and the 6th Cavalry followed a few days later. When Funston took command of the city of Vera Cruz on 30 April, he had a land force of more than 7,300 men-4,000 soldiers and 3,300 marines. He established a firm defensive position and supervised organization of a military government. Changes in the Mexican Government made possible the withdrawal of the American forces from

Vera Cruz on 23 November 1914.

An increasing number of border incidents early in 1916 culminated in an invasion of American territory on 8 March, when Francisco (Pancho) Villa and his band of 500 to 1,000 men raided Columbus, New Mexico. Elements of the 13th Cavalry repulsed the attack, but there were 24 American casualties (14 military, 10 civilian). Immediate steps were taken to organize a punitive expedition of about 10,000 men under Brig. Gen. John J. Pershing to capture Villa. The 7th, 10th, 11th, and 13th Cavalry regiments, 6th and 16th Infantry regiments, part of the 6th Field Artillery, and supporting elements crossed the border into Mexico in midMarch, followed later by the 5th Cavalry, 17th and 24th Infantry regiments, and engineer and other units. Pershing was subject to orders which required him to respect the sovereignty of Mexico, and was further hindered by the fact that the Mexican Government and people resented the invasion. Advanced elements of the expedition penetrated as far as Parral, some 400 miles south of the border, but Villa was never captured. The campaign consisted primarily of dozens of minor skirmishes with small bands of insurgents. There were even clashes with Mexican Army units; the most serious was on 21 June 1916 at Carrizal, where a detachment of the 10th Cavalry was nearly destroyed. War would probably have been declared but for the critical situation in Europe. Even so, virtually the entire Regular Army was involved, and most of the National Guard had been Federalized and concentrated on the border before the end of the affair. Normal relations with Mexico were restored

eventually by diplomatic negotiation, and the troops were withdrawn from Mexico in February 1917.

Minor clashes with Mexican irregulars continued to disturb the border from 1917 to 1919. Engagements took place near Buena Vista, Mexico on 1 December 1917; in San Bernardino Canyon, Mexico on 26 December 1917; near La Grulla, Texas on 8-9 January 1918; at Pilares, Mexico about 28 March 1918; at Nogales, Arizona on 27 August 1918; and near El Paso, Texas on 15-16 June 1919.

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CAMPAIGNS IN THE CARIBBEAN AND OTHER AREAS, 1900-34. Unsettled conditions in the Caribbean region led to armed intervention by the United States on numerous sions from 1900 to 1934. Most of these interventions were carried out by the Marine Corps. Marine units were dispatched to Honduras in 1903 and 1907; to the Dominican Republic in 1903, 1904, 1914, and 1916-24; to Nicaragua in 1910, 1912, 1925, and 1927-33; and to Haiti in 1914 and 1915-34. The most important of these operations, employing the largest number of Marine units, were the Haitian campaign and occupation, 9 July 1915 to 15 August 1934; the Dominican Republic campaign and occupation, 5 May 1916 to 16 September 1924; and the expeditionary service in Nicaragua, 1 January 1927 to 2 January 1933.

Marines also participated in operations and occupations in areas other than the Caribbean during this period, as follows: Colombia in 1903-04; Korea in 1904-05; Cuba in 1906-09, 1912, and 1917; China in 1900, 1911-14, 1924, 1925, and 1927-41; and Mexico in 1914.

In the intervals between major wars, from 1783 to 1898, the Indian problem was the most important continuing concern of the Army. During these periods the Regular Army was consistently small, ranging from about 4,000 in the 1790's to 27,000 in the late 1800's, and most of its combat troops were thinly scattered along the frontier, moving with, and often far ahead of, the most

advanced line of settlement. Between 1790 and 1898 the Army carried out an estimated 69 separate expeditions against the Indians, and participated in literally thousands of minor skirmishes. The Department of the Army has designated 14 named campaigns of the Indian Wars. The Army was also on call to assist other government agencies, especially the Bureau of