After this disaster the Little Big Horn campaign continued until September 1877, many additional Regular units seeing action (including elements of the 4th and 5th Cavalry regiments, the 5th, 14th, 22d, and 23d Infantry regiments, and the 4th Artillery). Crook and Terry joined forces on the Rosebud on 10 August 1876, but most of the Indians slipped through the troops, although many came into the reservations. Fighting in the fall and winter of 1876-77 consisted mostly of skirmishes and raids, notably Crook's capture of American Horse's village at Slim Buttes (South Dakota) on 9 September and of Dull Knife's village in the Big Horn Mountains on 26 November, and Col. Nelson A. Miles' attack on Crazy Horse's camp in the Wolf Mountains on 8 January. By the summer of 1877 most of the Sioux were back on the reservations. Crazy Horse had come in, and was killed resisting arrest at Fort Robinson (Nebraska) in September. Sitting Bull, with a small band of Sioux, escaped to Canada, but surrendered at Fort Buford (Montana) in July 1881.

Nez Percé Campaign, 1877. Indians of the southern branch of the Nez Percés, led by Chief Joseph, refused to give up their ancestral lands (OregonIdaho border) and enter a reservation. When negotiations broke down and Nez Percé hotheads killed settlers in early 1877, the 1st Cavalry was sent to compel them to come into the reservation. Chief Joseph chose to resist, and undertook an epic retreat of some 1,600 miles through Idaho, Yellowstone Park, and Montana, during which he engaged 11 separate commands of the Army in 13 battles and skirmishes in a period of 11 weeks. Th Nez Percé chieftain revealed remarkable skill as a tactician, and his braves demonstrated exceptional discipline in numerous engagements, especially those on the Clearwater River (11 July), in Big Hole Basin (9-12 August), and in the Bear Paw Mountains, where he surrendered with the remnants of his band to Col. Nelson A. Miles on 4 October 1877. Maj. Gen. O. O. Howard, commander of the Department of the Columbia, and Col. John Gibbon also played a prominent part in the pursuit of Joseph, which by the end of September 1877 had involved

elements of the 1st, 2d, 5th, and 7th Cavalry regiments, the 2d, 5th, 7th, and 21st Infantry regiments, and the 4th Artillery.

Bannock and Sheepeater Campaigns, 1878-79. The Bannock, Piute, and other Indian tribes of southern Idaho threatened rebellion in 1878, partly because of dissatisfaction with their land allotments. Many of them left the reservations, and elements of the 2d, 5th, 12th, and 21st Infantry regiments, the 4th Artillery, and the 1st and 2d Cavalry regiments pursued the fugitives. Capt. Evan Miles so effectively dispersed a large band near the Umatilla Agency on 13 July 1878 that most of the Indians returned to their reservations within a few months.

The Sheepeaters, who were mountain sheep hunters and outcasts of other Idaho tribes, raided ranches and mines in 1879. Relentless pursuit by elements of the 1st Cavalry and 2d Infantry compelled them to surrender in September of that year.

Ute Campaign, 1879-80. A Mr. N. C. Meeker, the Indian agent at White River Agency (Colorado), became involved in a dispute with Northern Utes in September 1879 and requested assistance from the Army. In response, Maj. T. T. Thornburgh's column of about 200 men (parts of the 3d and 5th Cavalry regiments and the 4th Infantry) moved out from Fort Steele (Wyoming). On 29 September this force was attacked and besieged on the Milk River (Colorado) by three or four hundred warriors. Thornburgh's command was finally relieved by elements of the 9th Cavalry that arrived on 2 October and of the 5th Cavalry under Col. Wesley Merritt that arrived on 5 October, but in the meantime Meeker and most of his staff had been massacred. Before the Utes were pacified, in November of 1880, several thousand troops, including elements of the 4th, 6th, 7th, 15th, 16th, and 19th Infantry regiments and the 3d, 5th, and 9th Cavalry regiments had taken the field.

In 1906 the Utes of this area left their reservation and roamed through Wyoming, terrorizing the countryside, until they were forced back on their reservation by elements of the 6th and 10th Cavalry regiments.

Pine Ridge Campaign, 1890-91. Accumulated grievances, aggravated by teachings of an Indian prophet named Wovoka who claimed to be the Messiah, brought about this last major conflict with the Sioux. General Miles, commander of the Department of the Missouri, responded to a Department of the Interior request to check the rising ferment by ordering apprehension of the great Sioux leader, Sitting Bull, who was killed during the attempted arrest at Standing Rock Agency on 15 December 1890. Meanwhile large numbers of Sioux had been assembling in the Bad Lands, and a serious clash took place at Wounded Knee Creek on 29 December 1890 between Col. James W. Forsyth's 7th Cavalry and Chief Big Foot's band, with considerable losses on both sides. Almost half the infantry and cavalry of the Regular Army (including elements of the 1st, 6th, 7th, 8th, and 9th Cavalry regiments, the 1st, 2d, 3d, 7th, 8th, 12th, 16th, 17th, 20th, 21st, 22d, and 25th Infantry regiments, and the 4th Artillery), were concentrated in the area, and in January 1891 the warriors were disarmed and persuaded to return peaceably to their reservations.

SOUTHWEST, 1836-86. Conflicts with the Indians of the southwestern plains and mountains increased after the Mexican War, but were on a small scale until the end of the Civil War. The tribes of the Southwest were generally smaller than those of the northern plans, and never concentrated in as large numbers as, for instance, the Sioux. Important tribes were the Comanche, Southern Cheyenne, Kiowa, and Arapaho of the upper Arkansas and Red River region, and the Apache and Navaho of southwest Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.

Sand Creek Massacre, 1864. Numerous Indian raids in Colorado and nearby areas resulted in a punitive expedition by volunteer units led by Col. J. M. Chivington. Several hundred Cheyennes and Arapahoes were killed in a surprise attack on the winter village of Black Kettle and White Antelope on Sand Creek on 29 November 1864. Medicine Lodge Treaty, 1867. The massacre at Sand Creek aroused intense unrest among the western Indians, and

led Congress to negotiate with the Southwest Plains Indians. The Medicine Lodge Treaty, signed at Fort Larned (Kansas) in October 1867, provided reservations for the Kiowas and Comanches between the Red and Washita Rivers, and for the Southern Cheyennes and Arapahoes in areas south of the Arkansas. However, the Indians would not adhere to its terms.

Campaigns Against the Comanche, Cheyenne, and Other Tribes, 1867-75. Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan, commanding the Department of the Missouri, instituted winter campaigns in 1868 as a means of locating the elusive Indian tribes of the region. From then until 1875, campaigns continued in the border regions of Kansas, Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas. Notable incidents were the nine-day defense of Beecher's Island against Roman Nose's band in September 1868 by Maj. George A. Forsyth's detachment; the defeat of Black Kettle on the Washita (Oklahoma) on 27 November 1868 by Colonel Custer and the 7th Cavalry; the crushing of the Cheyennes under Tall Bull at Summit Spring (Colorado) on 13 May 1869; the assault on the Kiowa-Comanche camp in Palo Duro Canyon on 27 September 1875 by Col. Ranald S. Mackenzie; and the attack and rout of Greybeard's big Cheyenne encampment in the Texas Panhandle on 8 November 1875 by 1st Lt. Frank Baldwin's detachment, spearheaded by infantry loaded in mule wagons.

Apache Campaigns, 1871-86. After Brig. Gen. George Crook became commander of the Department of Arizona in 1871, he undertook a series of winter campaigns by small detachments which pacified the region by 1874. In the years that followed, however, the Indian Bureau's policy of frequent removal created new dissatisfaction among the Apaches. Dissident elements, led by Chato, Victorio, Geronimo, and other chiefs, went off the reservations and raided settlements along both sides of the border, escaping into Mexico or the United States as circumstances dictated. To combat this practice, the two nations agreed in 1882 to permit reasonable pursuit of Indian raiders by the troops of each country across the international boundary.

Mexican

Victorio was killed by troops in 1880, but Chato and Geronimo remained at large until May 1883, when they surrendered to General Crook and elements of the 6th Cavalry, reinforced by Apache scouts, at a point some 200 miles inside Mexico. Two years later Geronimo and about 150 Chiricahua Apaches again left their White Mountain reservation (Arizona) and once more terrorized the border region. Elements of the 4th Cavalry and Apache scouts immediately took up pursuit of the Chiricahua renegades. In January 1886 Capt. Emmet Crawford and 80 Apache scouts attacked Geronimo's main band some 200 miles south of the border, but the Indians escaped into the mountains. Although Crawford was killed by Mexican irregulars shortly thereafter, his second in command, 1st Lt. M. P. Maus, was able to negotiate Geronimo's surrender to Crook in late March 1886. However, Geronimo and part of his band escaped within a few days (29 March). Capt. Henry W. Lawton's column (elements of the 4th Cavalry, 8th Infantry, and Apache scouts) surprised his camp in the mountains of Mexico on 20 July. Although the Chiricahuas again fled, by the end of August they indicated a willingness to surrender. On 4 September 1886, 1st Lt. Charles B. Gatewood of Lawton's command negotiated the formal surrender to Brig. Gen. Nelson Miles, who had relieved Crook in April. Geronimo and his band were removed to Florida, and finally to the Fort Sill military reservation.

PACIFIC COAST, 1840-73. Since the Pacific Coast tribes were small and acted independently, the campaigns of this region required employment of comparatively few Regular Army troops.

A prolonged campaign against the Cayuse Indians began with the massacre of Dr. Marcus Whitman (a missionary), his wife, and 12 other whites near present-day Walla Walla, Washington, on 29 November 1847. The campaign ended in 1850 with the voluntary surrender of 5 confessed perpetrators of the massacre, who were later tried and hanged.

Regulars campaigned in the early 1850's against Indians near the important

Colorado River crossing at Fort Yuma (elements of the 1st Dragoons and 2d Infantry in 1851-52); in the Pit River region of northern California (part of the 3d Artillery in 1850); and in the Rogue River country of southwestern Oregon (elements of the 1st Dragoons, 3d Artillery, and 4th Infantry in 185156).

In the Pacific Northwest a remarkable chieftain, Kamiakin, formed an alliance of his own Yakima tribe with the Klickatas and began a war against the settlers in 1855. Before this conflict ended (in September 1858) with Col. George Wright's decisive expedition into the Spokane area, it had involved most of the tribes of the region, and elements of the 1st Dragoons, 3d Artillery, and 4th and 9th Infantry regiments; and the area of conflict had extended west to Puget Sound.

The Modoc Campaign of 1872-73 was the last Indian war of consequence on the Pacific Coast. The Modocs, a small and restless tribe, had been placed on a reservation with the Klamaths, their traditional enemies. They shortly found the situation intolerable. A majority of them left the reservation, led by a chief known as "Captain Jack," and returned to their old lands. A detail of 1st Cavalry troops under Capt. James Jackson became involved in a skirmish with these Modocs on Lost River on 29 November 1872, when the troops sought to disarm them and arrest the leaders. Following the skirmish, Captain Jack and about 120 warriors, with ample supplies, retreated to a naturally fortified area in the Lava Beds east of Mount Shasta. On 17 January 1873 Col. Alvan Gillem's detachment of some 400 men, half of them Regulars from the 1st Cavalry and 21st Infantry, attacked the Modoc positions, but the troops could make no progress in the almost impassable terrain and suffered a loss of 10 killed and 28 wounded.

By the spring of 1873, Brig. Gen. Edward R. S. Canby, commander of the Department of the Pacific, had collected about 1,000 men (elements of the 1st Cavalry, the 12th and 21st Infantry regiments, and the 4th Artillery) to besiege the Modocs. Indian Bureau officials failed in attempts at negotiation, but General Canby and three civilian

commissioners were able to arrange a parley with an equal number of Modoc representatives on 11 April. The Indians treacherously violated the truce. Captain Jack himself killed General Canby; one of the commissioners was also killed, and another wounded. The siege was resumed.

Brig. Gen. Jefferson C. Davis, who arrived in May to replace Canby, moved his columns deep into the Lava

Beds, harrying the Indians day and night with mortar and rifle fire. When their source of water was cut off, the Indians were finally forced into the open, and all were captured by 1 June 1873. Captain Jack and two others were hanged, and the rest of the tribe was removed to the Indian Territory. During the course of the siege some 80 white men had been killed.

The Army is one of the agencies available to the President, in the discharge of his duties under the Constitution, to see that the laws of the Union are faithfully executed and to guarantee to each State a republican form of government. State governments bear the major responsibility for controlling domestic disturbances within their borders, and normally the President acts only at the request of a governor or State legislature. However, under the statutes passed by Congress at various times, the President has been authorized to use either the Regular forces or the militia (the modern equivalent of which is the National Guard) to enforce the laws of the Union. In the course of our history the President has thus used the Regular Army, or the militia/National Guard called into Federal service, over a hundred times-to assist the governments of the various States in dispersing violent mobs and restoring law and order, to uphold Federal law, or to protect Federal property.

There were a number of such instances in the period from 1781 to the Civil War. Even before the adoption of the Constitution the Confederation Congress was called upon to recruit militia to deal with rebellious farmers and small property owners in western Massachusetts. State militia suppressed Shays' Rebellion (1786-87), a protest movement against seizure of property in lieu of debt and tax payments, before militia recruited at the request of the Congress reached Massachusetts. In 1794 a force of 12,950 militiamen, raised in four States and organized

under the direct supervision of President Washington, moved into western Pennsylvania to deal with a widespread insurrection of farmers opposed to paying the Federal excise tax on whisky. A few years later (1799) a force made up of Federal militia, Regulars, and volunteers intervened in the similar Fries Rebellion in northeastern Pennsylvania, which was inspired by opposition to a Federal tax on property. In another instance of resistance to enforcement of revenue laws, Regular forces at Army posts in South Carolina and neighboring states were ordered alerted and strengthened by President Jackson during the tense Tariff Nullification Controversy (1832-33).

In the Dorr Rebellion (1842) in Rhode Island, a protest movement against an extremely limited suffrage, both the governor and the State legislature requested use of Federal troops, but the disturbances subsided before Regulars at Fort Adams had taken the field.

State militia suppressed violent outbreaks against the Mormons in Missouri (1838) and Illinois (1844-46). In 1857-8, however, a strong force of Regulars had to be employed to back up territorial officials in the exercise of their functions when members of this sect, organized in well-armed bands, defied extension of Federal authority to the Utah Territory. The Regular Army likewise played an important role in the disorders resulting from the intensified controversy over slavery in the 1850's. Regulars went into action on several occasions during the Kansas Border Troubles (1854-58). Regular officers commanded the Marine detach

ment which took into custody the perpetrators of John Brown's raid on Harper's Ferry (1859).

A majority of domestic disturbances since the Civil War can be attributed to dissatisfaction with prevailing economic and social conditions. Racial tension was a significant corollary factor in some instances. Disturbances have occurred most frequently in the area of labor-management relations. Two notable examples in the late nineteenth century were the great railroad strikes of 1877 and 1894-each a by-product of economic depression. In 1877 there were riots in cities from coast to coast, and nearly half of the Regular Army was on the move or alerted. The Pullman strikes of 1894 started in Chicago, but soon spread to virtually all parts of the country and required employment of Federal troops at numerous places along the routes of the railroads, particularly in the West. The intervention of Regulars in Illinois to enforce the processes of the Federal courts is one of the few instances in which Federal troops have been used despite the opposition of the State executive (in this case, Governor Altgeld).

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In the 1890's and early 1900's our mining industry was repeatedly flicted with labor troubles culminating in violence which necessitated intervention of Federal troops. Some examples were the disturbances at the silver and lead mines in the Coeur d'Alene Mountains of Idaho (1892), the gold fields of Nevada (1907), and the coal fields of Colorado (1913-14) and West Virginia (1921). In the West, antipathy toward the employment of Oriental workers often combined with general dissatisfaction with working conditions to bring labor unrest. Elsewhere in the country, Regulars were frequently requested to cope with race riots involving whites and negroes, especially in the immediate post-World War I period, when major disturbances

occurred in many cities, including Winston-Salem, North Carolina (November 1918), Washington, D. C. (July 1919), and Omaha, Nebraska (September-November 1919).

Although the great depression of the 1930's, with its widespread economic and social repercussions, gave rise to serious domestic disturbances, Federal troops were used only on a single occasion. This was in 1932, when President Hoover directed their use to disperse unemployed war veterans (the "Bonus Army") who had encamped in Washington, D. C. to make a direct appeal to Congress for economic redress. In this period, however, governors used State militia in a number of instances, notably in disturbances arising out of labor-management disputes.

During World War II and the immediate postwar years the President frequently invoked his emergency and wartime powers to seize, and place under government control, industries where strikes or lockouts threatened the national interest. Thus the Army was directed to seize and operate the North American Aviation Company plant (1941), most of the railroads (1943, 1946, 1948, and 1950), the Montgomery Ward and Company properties (1944), and the towboat companies in New York City (1946).

In late 1957 President Eisenhower ordered the use of both the Arkansas National Guard and Regulars in the enforcement of a Federal court order relating to racial integration in the public schools of Little Rock, Arkansas, after the Governor had used the National Guard to oppose its execution. This was the first time since the Civil War that the President had called the National Guard into Federal service for use in a domestic disturbance, and another of the few instances in which troops were thus used without a request from State authorities.