chants, and judge of national prosperity by the prosperity of a single class. They aim at national prosperity by debarring the operative of every thing but common necessaries; and would overspread their country with poverty, in order that a few more goods might be exported. In this way they would give to foreigners all the advantage of the cheapness of the articles produced at the expense of national privation. Happily, however, a kind Providence has caused the wages of labour to be determined by circumstances wholly above the control of any class of men; and thus has placed them completely out of the power of reasoners of such callousness of feeling. Such reasoning is, in fact, not less contrary to truth than it is repugnant to humanity, and on that account deserving of universal reprobation.

The interchange of commodities, whether effected by the home or by the foreign trade, does not depend upon the rewards of labour: this interchange takes place with equal facility, and to an equal extent, whether wages be high or low. High wages in a particular branch of industry, no doubt, raise the prices of the productions of that branch, and thereby diminish their consumption both at home and abroad. But though the production and exportation of the dear commodities of this particular branch must be lessened from such cause, the production and exportation of commodities on the whole are not thereby lessened; but the falling off here will be made up by a corresponding increase in the exportation of cheaper commodities of other kinds. The advantage of the division of employments, and of each workman devoting himself exclusively to one occupation, consists in that each is thereby enabled to acquire, through the exchange of the particular produce of his own labour for that of the labours of others, a greater quantity and variety of the articles he is desirous of obtaining, than he could gain by endeavouring to produce them all by his own personal labour. The foreign trade effects the exchanges called for by the international distribution of employments, as the home trade effects those called for by the domestic distribution of employments. The advantage to be derived by the inter-national distribution of employments, and the foreign trade by which its exchanges

are effected, is our being enabled thereby to supply ourselves with articles which either could not be procured at home, or could not be procured of such qualities at so cheap a rate. If the foreign trade does not procure to a nation a larger and better supply than the home trade would afford, it is the public interest that it should be given up. Foreigners must pay as much for our goods as may enable all the parties concerned in the trade, workmen as well as masters, to procure as great a quantity of the articles of life as they might do by applying their industry to the production of the articles themselves. If they pay less than this, a public loss is sustained by supplying them. On the other hand, if a larger and better supply is procured from them, than could be produced by the exertion of our own industry, it is the public interest to keep up the inter-national division of employments by which this better supply is acquired. According to the extent of this division, must be the amount of foreign commerce. This extent depends on circumstances altogether different from the rate of wages; indeed its increase uniformly causes the rewards of labour to rise. The only way in which the rate of wages in particular trades affects foreign commerce, is by determining the kinds of commodities that shall be selected for exportation in preference to others.

It is from looking exclusively to the merchant's profit, that a danger of error arises in assuming an advantage from a foreign trade, when that profit is considerable. But to prove that this trade is really advantageous, it ought to be shown that the workmen also, as well as the masters and dealers, are as well remunerated as they might be in other occupations which they have the means of following. It is not the sale of the articles, with a profit to the dealers, that is the only object to be aimed at ; but the supply which the articles procured in exchange affords to all the parties concerned. If we sell abroad an article, the producers of which are badly paid, we shall probably take in exchange an article, the producers of which are better paid. It were better then to produce this article ourselves, if we can do so with an equal advantage, and thus let our own workmen get the better price for it.

Another way in which high wages operate beneficially is, by

leading to the economy of labour, from increasing the profit of this economy. When wages are high, the master who employs many workmen necessarily endeavours, for his own advantage, to make such an arrangement and distribution of employment amongst them as may prevent the smallest loss of time, and enable them to produce the greatest quantity of work possible. For the same reason, he supplies them with the best machinery which can be devised. What takes place in a particular factory, takes place, and for the same reason, in a great community. The greater the number of workmen, the more they naturally divide themselves into different classes and subdivisions of employments. The stronger the inducement to invention, the more heads will be occupied about it; and, consequently, the more likely is the end to be accomplished. When, therefore, the most proper instruments and machinery are invented for executing the work of each branch, commodities come to be produced with so much more facility, that the saving of labour more than compensates for the higher wages paid for it.

Another condition which operates as an incentive to industry, and is highly conducive to the augmentation and improvement of its products, is, that the workman should, as much as possible, possess a personal interest in his own work,-in the quantity he performs, and in its perfection. This is the case, in a measure, when labourers are employed at task-work; but it is much more completely so when the workman is entirely his own master. In a simple state of society, and in the infancy of art, almost all men work on their own account. In a more advanced state, journeymen are the most numerous. Those trades which require an expensive apparatus, large capital, and much division of labour, cannot be successfully carried on otherwise. But a poor independent workman will generally be more industrious than even a journeyman who works by the piece. The one enjoys the whole produce of his industry: the other shares it with his master. The superiority of the independent workman over those who are hired by the day or the year, and whose wages are the same whether they work much or little, is likely to be still greater. This is strikingly ex

emplified in the case of farm-labourers cultivating small patches of land on their own account; in which the produce is generally much larger than when the same land is cultivated by a farmer with hired men. In the former case, a double advantage is gained, the quantity of work performed is not only greater and better done, but the labour is less irksome. This last consideration may perhaps be thought unworthy of notice by economists whose sole object is the increase of wealth, no matter by what means acquired, or by what painful sacrifices of toil. But to the man whose object is to sweeten the lot of humanity, that which lightens labour and renders it pleasant, cannot be accounted of inferior moment. Another advantage which may be conceived to arise from the separate independent state, is, that the workman is less exposed to the temptations of bad company, which in large factories sometimes injures the morals of the workmen. To the attainment of the objects now mentioned, that which seems most favourable is, a general diffusion of wealth, by which many workmen might acquire the means of entering into business on their own account. Effects somewhat similar follow from a great subdivision of employments; such as we find exists in the watch trade, where the making of one only of the parts of the watch forms generally a separate and distinct branch, carried on by different persons, and where the capital required is consequently so small that there are few workmen who are too poor to engage in it on their own account. It is in this way that national industry is carried to the fullest extent of its powers, and becomes much greater than when the workmen labour in employments in the success of which they have scarcely any interest, for masters possessing large capitals, allowing a low remuneration of labour, and living apparently at the expense of contracting the comforts as well as the energies of the workmen.

Since the rewards of labour present a stimulus to exertion, the industry of the community would be increased by the abrogation of the custom of long apprenticeships. Apprenticeships have no tendency to form young people to industry. A journeyman who works by the piece is likely to be industrious, because his pay is according to the work he performs: if he is

idle, he earns but little; if industrious, he earns much. An apprentice is likely to be idle, and almost always is so, because he has no immediate interest to be otherwise. During the term of his servitude, he is a kind of slave, without any other reward for his labour than the distant and inefficacious recompence of being taught his trade, and of procuring the freedom to exercise it; which he will be sure to acquire merely by length of servitude, whether he be diligent or idle, whether he perform his work well or ill, or whether he spoil his master's materials or not. Without a motive to exertion, beyond the sense of duty, which is generally feeble and inoperative, his object is to while away time. His inattention to business brings reproofs from his master, and thus a feeling of variance with each other is engendered. Instead of having his master's interest at heart, he is inattentive to it unless compelled by the fear of punishment, or only while beneath his master's eye. And where shall the blame of these consequences be placed? Surely not more on the weakness of an inexperienced youth, unable to perceive aright the remote but real consequences of his folly, than on the system itself which robs him of his freedom, and on the other parties who act on such a system. In the inferior employments, the sweets of labour consist altogether in the recompence of labour. They who soonest enjoy its sweets, are likely soonest to conceive a relish for it, and to acquire the early habit of industry. A lad naturally conceives an aversion to labour, when for a long time he receives no benefit from it. The boys who are put out apprentices from public charities are frequently bound for more than the usual number of years, and they generally turn out idle and worthless.

To borrow the language of Dr. Hamilton,*" Industry is promoted by the following means :-By directing education and early habits in a manner that tends to increase bodily strength and reconcile the mind to application and perseverance. By placing within the reach of the labourer a competent share of those enjoyments which are suitable to his station. By affording him, at all times, an opportunity of exerting his industry to advantage. By securing him the free possession and enjoyProgress of Society, p. 34.