The time may be particularly ripe for discussing technology and science in China and the reasons are manifold. The policy debate in China-not limited only to technology and science which has been raging in China since the First Session of the Fourth National People's Congress in early 1975 has now been settled. Much information on the debate has been available so it is relatively easy to present, in some detail, the issues which have been debated. China is now reorganizing and quickly developing her institutions of technology and science in order to make them better serve the country. In this process China has clearly indicated that increased technological and scientific contacts with other countries and foreign scientists are important. Science and technology is also one of the "four modernizations" where China has set the goal to achieve full modernization before the end of the century so that the national economy will be advancing in the front ranks of the world. This should in no way be interpreted that China is going to develop science and technology for its own sake. The development goals of the country are clearly deciding the priorities and allocations within science and technology, even if many foreign observers may initially have made a different interpretation. Science and technology must meet different needs in the Chinese society and we have been given many indications that advanced science and technology may in the past have been temporarily neglected-a situation which is now being rapidly remedied.

One of the problems in technological development has been the gap between China and advanced countries. The noted scientist Chien Hsueh-sen in 1977 discussed the gap between China's science and

This article is a considerably shortened and more analytical version of a book-length manuscript which is simultaneously being published in England and Sweden ("Technology and Science in the People's Republic of China-An Introduction," Society for Anglo-Chinese Understanding, London 1978, and Bo Cavefors Publishers, Lund 1978). The underlying research has mainly been carried out at the Research Policy Program at the University of Lund, Sweden. The estimates of the R. & D. expenditure is based on collaborative work undertaken together with Boel Billgren. I have also been assisted by Lisbeth Rasmusan who has helped me in building up a systematic collection of documents which directly or indirectly relate to science policy and technological achievements in China.

technology and the advanced countries of the world.' In his views and comments, which are personal, he deals with four questions related to the gap. The first is whether or not there exists a disparity between the level in China's science and technology and advanced world levels. There are some things in China he says, which come close to or which surpass advanced world levels. But they represent only a part of the whole, and a relatively small part at that, and in most cases China is relatively backward. Furthermore, he says, among those scientific and technological undertakings in which we have achieved relatively better successes and have surpassed foreign countries in terms of overall results, the technical level of some of the machinery and equipment is not high.

He then goes on to discuss the second question whether China should gradually narrow the disparity and catch up with and surpass the advanced world levels. The speed and direction have been critical issues and Chien Hsuah-sen's views are not always very illuminating. In essence he says that socialist economic construction and the national defence requires the narrowing of the disparity.

On the third question whether China is able to catch up with and surpass he is equally vague by referring to the superiority of the country's socialist system. He points to the contradiction between the socialization of science and technology and private ownership under the capitalist system-a contradiction which cannot be resolved. Consequently, according to Chien's views, this has placed an obstruction in the path of the development of science and technology in market economies. If we look at the temporary development of science and technology in advanced industrialized countries this can only be partially correct. However, Chien answers the third question in the affirmative and says that, in the final analysis, the interests of the individual, the collective and the State are in accordance with one another in China. If we accept, at least some of, the criticism leveled at the political opponents, the "gang of four," this situation has not been prevailing in China in recent years.

In his final question Chien Hsueh-sen discusses how to bring the superiority of the socialist system into full play and enable China's science and technology to catch up and surpass the advanced world levels. Even here the article lacks specificity but the substance can be seen in the many reforms and measures which have been announced and implemented since the article was published.

The somewhat gloomy views of Chien Hsueh-sen on the present situation are reiterated in a statement by Fang Yi, vice president of the Chinese Academy of Sciences who, at the end of December 1977, says that "China's science and education are in such a state that virtually everything needs to be done." In order to deal with the situation the party central committee and the state council has made a number of major decisions and taken effective measures which are listed here.2

1. A state commission of science and technology has been set up. Its responsibilities will be the overall planning, coordination,

1 "Science and Technology Must Catch Up With and Surpass Advanced World Levels Before the End of the Century," Red Flag, 1977, No. 7, by Chien Hsueh-sen BBC FE/5563/B11/6.

2 Comrade Fang Yi on heartening progress in China's science and education, Hsinhua News (Stockholm), 1977, No. 314 (Dec. 31). Fang Yi was making a report on the situation in China's science and technology on Dec. 27, 1977, at the seventh session of the standing committee of the fourth national committee of the Chinese people's political consultative conference.

organization and administration of the country's scientific and technological work.

2. A system of directors assuming responsibility in research institutes under the leadership of the party committees has been approved. The leadership of many scientific research institutions and a number of universities and colleges has been reorganized and strengthened.

3. A program for the development of science and technology and that of education is being drafted.

4. The administrative system has been changed in order to make full use of local and central initiatives. Some of scientific research institutions which were transferred or discharged have been restored and others are under consideration.

5. Science conferences or teachers' meetings have been held in a number of places to award those with outstanding achievements and to exchange experience. The restoration of titles for technical personnel has been carried out in order to encourage improvement in professional skill, assess technical proficiency and strengthen the system of specific responsibilities.

6. Academic and working conferences have been held to implement the principle of "letting a hundred flowers blossom and a hundred schools contend." The national scientific and technological association has been revived and various scientific societies have resumed their work.

7. A new system for enrolling students in universities and colleges has been implemented and large numbers of promising students have come forward.

8. The compilation of a new set of standard textbooks for the whole country is being carried out under the responsibility of the ministry of education. The principle followed is to condense the teaching material and do everything in order to provide the young people with the latest scientific and technical knowledge.

9. While keeping to the principle of independence and selfreliance China will strive to learn advanced science and technology from foreign countries and promote international academic exchanges.

10. Scientific and technical personnel will be guaranteed at least five-sixths of the week for professional work.

11. Science and education will have their funds, coming from the state budget, appropriately increased in order to accelerate and expand development.

12. Science and education will receive more publicity and more efforts will be made to spread scientific knowledge.

An attempt will be made in the following to relate all these changes to the existing situation and the needs in China. Here we have to remember that China is a country with a still dominant majority of her population and manpower in agriculture. We are also looking at a continental country with manpower resources far exceeding any other country. At the same time China has set up structures in science and technology which on one hand are designed to facilitate her economic development. strategy and on the other hand be one of the instruments in moving toward socialism and-in Mao's conceptioncreating a new man. Consequently, it has been considered necessary to make a fairly detailed presentation of policy issues and the science

policy debate in China. However, this is as an attempt to present certain important facts about technological development, the role of technicians and the buildup of institutions.

Frank views on the technology gap were again reiterated when Fang Yi made his general report to the national science conference which convened in Peking in late March and early April 1978. At the time he said that "our country is now lagging 15 to 20 years behind in many branches and more still in some others." 3 In order to deal with the situation a national plan for the development of science and technology 1978-85 had been drafted in December 1977 and January 1978 and was presented to the conference for discussions. The major goals of this plan are: *

1. Increase the number of professional research workers to 800,000;

2. Build a number of up-to-date centers for scientific experiment;

3. Complete a nationwide system for scientific and technological research; and

4. Approach or reach advanced world levels of the 1970's in a number of branches of science and technology.

Related to this last goal Vice Premier Teng Hsiao-ping in his opening statement at the conference stressed that:

It is not just today, when we are scientifically and technically backward, that we need to learn from other countries after we catch up with advanced world levels in science and technology, we will still have to learn from the strong points of others."

The present interest in collaboration is reflected in comments made by Li Chang at the National Science Conference. He said that the postgraduate school of the university of science and technology and other research institutes will invite outstanding foreign scientists to conduct seminars. Invitations from prominent foreign, and friendly, research institutions will also be accepted so that high level Chinese scientists and technicians can take part in their research projects."

The 8-year plan, 1978-85, gives prominence to eight comprehensive areas of science and technology; namely, energy resources, materials, electronic computers, laser, space science, high energy physics, genetics, and naturally agriculture, and will cover both basic and technical sciences. Included in this approach are 108 items which have been chosen as key projects although not yet been made public. When the plan is fulfilled in 1985 China is, according to Fang Yi, expected to approach or reach the advanced world levels of 1970's in a number of important branches of science and technology with a resulting reduction in the gap to about 10 years."

Similarly, medium-term plans, for 5 and 8 years, have also been drawn up for the Academy of Social Sciences which has been created as a new entity out of the Department of Social Sciences which, until recently, was part of the Academy of Sciences. Organizational

8

Fang Yi's report at the National Science Conference, Hsinhua News Agency (Peking, Mar. 28, 1978), No. 10666.

4 ibid.

Vice Chairman Teng Hsiao-ping on self-reliance and learning from others, Hsinhua News Agency (Stockholm), 1978, No. 71.

Vice president of Chinese Academy of Sciences on policies guiding work, Hsinhua News Agency (Peking, Mar. 30, 1978), No. 10668.

7 Fang Yi's report at National Science Conference, Hsinhua News Agency (Peking, Mar. 28, 1978), No. 10666.

• President of Chinese Academy of Sciences Kuo Mo-jo calls for new vitality in philosophy and social sciences, Hsinhua News Agency (Stockholm), 1978, No. 63.

measures are also introduced which will help China to develop a greatly increased science and technology capability. A key element is the system of "individual responsibility for technical work" in the scientific research institutes and "the system of division of responsibilities among institute directors under the leadership of party committees". On judging the work of the party committees of the scientific research institutes Teng Hsiao-ping stressed that "the main criterion for judging the work . . . should be the successful fulfillment of the task of producing as many scientific results and training as many highly competent scientific and technical personnel as possible". It is interesting to note that personnel is to be trained for management of scientific research, apparently at the Chinese University of Science and Technology which is under the leadership of the Academy of Sciences, 10

Finally, the publication of scientific and technical journals has apparently been fully resumed. The library at Tsinghua University in Peking for example stocks more than 1,000 current Chineselanguage periodicals published in China and all related to science and technology." Many of these are still for internal circulation only and may in cases only be available on exchange basis between research institutions, universities, colleges, et cetera. That only a limited number of copies are available is obviously the case, as those use pasted photographs for illustrations. The periodicals cover a large number of technical fields with prominence to electronics and metallurgy. A large number of them are abstract journals on foreign literature while others contain full translations of foreign articles-all of which closely reflects the situation in periodicals publication pricr to the cultural revolution.

POLICY ISSUES

We will discuss China's technology policy in terms of policy objectives, and strategies with their instruments and various conditioning factors, with an emphasis on the post-cultural revolution period. We will then move on to a presentation of China's two-leg strategy for development, self-reliance, and open-door scientific research after which we will also briefly discuss the role of the intellectuals.

The development of science and technology in China must be seen against the characteristics of the country. First, China is a developing country with a rural population majority, most of which are still engaged in agriculture. Second, China is a very large country with great regional variations and a diverse economy. Third, and not of least important, the People's Republic of China is committed to socialist planning with the ultimate aim of developing a Communist society.

The concern for industrial modernization and technological development both in the civilian and military sectors should not be evaluated only in our frame of reference but also with the historical experience of China in mind. This viewpoint was underlined in a joint editorial by the People's Daily, Red Flag and Liberation Army Daily at the

Vice Chairman Teng Hisao-ping on party leadership over scientific and technological work, Hsinhua News Agency (Stockholm), 1978, No. 71.

10 Vice president (Li Chang) of Chinese Academy of Sciences on policies guiding work, Hsinhua News Agency (Peking, Mar. 30, 1978), No. 10668.

Information from the author's visit to China in late March and early April 1978.