In table 8 the estimates for 1960 and 1966 have the widest coverage, NCNA, indicating that women in 1960 and 1966 made up 45 and 30 to 40 percent respectively of all persons working in agriculture. That is very much in line with the 1957 data of 35 and 46 percent women of all working in the North and South of China, respectively (see table 7, sources for 1957).

Scattered figures from a few small units are somewhat higher, the highest from South China, Kwangtung 1962. The 1973 estimate from Hopei refers to an area specialized in cotton growing which traditionally engaged a high proportion of women. A correspondence between the 1957 and the 1960-73 estimates, can be seen just as there was earlier a similarity in participation rates for the early 1960's (see text after table 5), and the years before 1958 (see table 3 and 4) when comparing women in farm work to all able-bodied women of the agricultural population.

Thus, during the early 1950's women's work in agriculture did not substantially rise above the 1930 level until collectivization was completed in 1956. This institutional change considerably heightened female involvement for a year, which declined in 1957 though not to the pre-1956 level. The formation of the rural people's communes in 1958 and a change in the measurement system and rural reorganization drew most women into agriculture and kept them there during the crisis years of 1959 and 1960 when men had to work on dam-building and irrigation projects. During the early 1960's women's participation in agricultural production returned to pre-1958 levels, though over time to a somewhat higher level than that of 1957. When men in increasing numbers were drafted for farm land capital construction projects and later began to leave agriculture for the development of rural industries, more women had to be mobilized for agriculture, which explains the somewhat increased participation rate of women from the midsixties later.

WORKDAYS OF WOMEN IN AGRICULTURE

Not only were more women needed in agriculture but also more workdays per year were demanded of each participating woman. In Northeast China in 1951 a special drive had been launched to get more women into agriculture thus enabling men to transfer to industry and mining.217 "Hundreds of thousands of women" were organized to release "100,000" male peasants from agricultural activities.218 Thus the working time of each woman was counted as equivalent from one-half to one-tenth of that of a male peasant, probably indicating a much smaller number of workdays per year put in by women than by men.

An editorial in the leading party organ, the People's Daily, discussed measures to bring more women into production, especially in the production cooperatives in 1954.219 An article a few days later

217 "The women's movement in New China," speech by Teng Ying-ch'ao, October 1951, published by the ACDWF in English in 1952.

2:8 Ibid.

219 Editorial, JMJP, 1954.1.29.

in the same paper gave an outline of a timetable for women's work n the countryside. Annually a woman should work: 220

(1) Half the year in agriculture,

(2) Two months in spinning,

(3) Two months for mending and odd jobs,

(4) One-half months in shoe-making, and

(5) A fortnight of weaving.

A village was given as a model where women performed one-third of all work done outside.221 A proposal by the Vice Chairman Chang Yün of the ACDWF told women to devote one-fifth to one-third of the workdays in a year to work in agricultural production for the collective.222 In the districts of Kiangsi-Province women on the average had 70 working days a year in agriculture in 1955.223 In Szechwan Province in the plain areas in the same year women in APC's put in 68 working days, while in the mountainous areas women contributed well over 110 working days.224 An editorial in the People's Daily on Women's Day 1956 specified that of 200 million village women, about 120 million in the APC's were in the labor force occupied with agriculture, livestock breeding, and sideline production.225 Therefore women's labor power was not being put to full use, and could be further utilized.

This estimate reveals high demands for women to participate in agricultural work. According to table 2 there were 139 million to 150 million women aged 15 to 59 in the agricultural population in 1956. China's total population was estimated to be 626 million to 633 million in 1956 (see table 1b). In 1956 80.5 to 83.4 percent of the population was classified as agricultural according to the Chinese Communist definition of the term (see after table 2, calculation for the years 1949-60, and definitions of "agricultural"). Of an agricultural population of 504 million to 528 million in 1956 children under 7 years of age made up 22 to 24 percent of the population. Subtracting 111 million to 127 million children leaves 393 million to 401 million people over 7 years of age of which women made up slightly less than half. Hence in the requirement above all women over 7 years of age were considered eligible to be mobilized for agricultural production.

In connection with the adoption of the draft of the national program for agriculture, a target set for women's participation: 22

226

Women should strive hard to work at least 120 days a year in the coming 7 years. Those who have reached this standard should try hard to work more than that. 227

Men were told to contribute 250 days a year.

The number of women working in agriculture increased sharply in 1956 in connection with the collectivization drive (see preceding chapter). The pressure to mobilize women for farm work relaxed considerably in 1957. Reports of misuse of women's labor gained momentum in 1956 (see chapter of women and overwork in agriculture).

820 JMJP, 1954.2.

221 Ibid.

222 Chang Yün, Vice Chairman, ACDWF, "Constructively direct village women to take part in agricultural mutual aid cooperative movement," CKFN, No. 3, 1954.

223 A speech by the chairman of the Kiangsu Democratic Women's Federation, Yang Tsu-hsing, "Actively mobilize women to join agricultural production," Hsin-hua jih-pao (New China Daily), Nanking, 1956.126 224 "Working days of rural Szechwan women will in 3 years surpass the target set for the seventh year of the National Program for Agriculture," NCNA-English, 1956.3.9.

225 Women of the whole country realize "The draft for the whole country's agricultural development from 1956 to 1957", JMJP, 1956.3.9.

226 Ibid.

227 Ibid.

When the pressure decreased in 1957 not only were fewer women working in agriculture but less was demanded of each woman. Therefore, a much greater flexibility was found in the 1957 version of the national program for agriculture where women were required to accomplish 80 to 180 days a year of productive work.228

In suburban areas in order to release more men for industrial work women cooperative members were told to strive to constitute 90 percent of the labor power in APC's within 2 years. 229 Suburban APC's specializing in production for urban areas in growing more vegetables, some of it in hothouses, and breeding fish and poultry demanded more labor days put in per year than rural APC's. This demand weighed heavily on women, not only because of more labor intensive crops but also because the men were to be released for industrial work.

Earlier it was mentioned that women as a group were left in the most primitive and unproductive sectors of the economy during the period of industrialization. This pattern was intensified here because of the greater opportunities for men to leave agriculture for more productive work in urban areas than in rural APC's. For this reason it can be expected that the proportion of women of all persons working in agriculture and also the number of work days demanded of them will be higher in suburban than in rural areas. In connection with the long-term agricultural planning in Shensi Province the Provincial Women's Federation drew up a plan for women's work. For a start women were to work not less than 120 days a year in agriculture. In 7 years time they would be expected to be working at least 180 days annually. Finally in 12 years time they would be working not less than 200 work days a year. 230 In Kwangsi Province women were told to work 250 man-days a year in agriculture in APC's.231

In Honan Province in 1956 about 10 percent of the village women did not take part in field work. At a conference August 29 to September 4, 1956, discussing problems of rural women and outside work arranged by the Honan Women's Federation the results of an investigation were disclosed showing that 50 to 60 percent of the village women in the economic crops districts worked 120 days, in grainproducing areas 100 days, in mountain areas not less than 100 days." A provincial plan was mapped out for 1957 asking that each woman work 150 days, and in cotton and tobacco-producing areas not less than 200 days. In some districts women had even been told to put in 300 work days.233

232

In the article it was said that the investigation was carried out in the year 1957, apparently given in error as the article was dated September 1956. This was the time when the draft of "the National Program for

228 Communist China 1955-59, Policy Documents with Analysis," Harvard University Press, 1962, p. 119. 229 Excerpt from the speech of the Chairman of the Municipal Women's Federation in Shenyang, "Shoulder the task of socialist construction," Shen-yang jih-pao (Shenyang Daily), 1956.4.13, Hou Chih, on the Second Women's Congress.

230 Shensi Provincial Democratic Women's Federation "Determine a long-term plan for the work for women of the whole province." Shen-si jih-pao (Shensi Daily), 1956.4.15.

231 Speech to the 2d plenary session of the 1st Kwangsi Provincial Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, "Women's role in construction in Kwangsi." Kuang-hsi jih-pao (Kwangsi Daily), 1956.4.28.

232 The Provincial Women's Federation calls a conference to discuss the problems of women having jobs. "Manage well household work, practice equal work, equal pay. Let women join agricultural production enthusiatically and happily," Ho-nan jih-pao (Honan Daily), 1956.9.9.

233 Ibid.

Agriculture 1956-67" was discussed and in that connection in this article a provincial plan was put forward by the Women's Federation to increase women's work participation rate during the same period. According to a report by the Honan Statistical Bureau in 1958 a survey of 31 hsien and municipalities and 1,951 APC's revealed that the female labor force worked on an average of 126 days in 1957.24 Examples were given both of how cooperativization in agriculture increased the number of work days performed by women, and of excessive demands on women's work participation. A survey published in English reported on one county in Hopei Province where the average able-bodied women worked 30 days and able-bodied men 110 to 120 days annually before cooperativization. After it, women in the lower APC's accomplished 70 to 80 days and men 170 to 180 days. Finally in the higher APC's women performed 230 days of work and men put in 270 days.235

These claims are in contrast to examples given earlier in an editorial in Chinese in the leading national daily of the difficulties encountered in raising the number of work-days for women in the APC's:

In Kiangsu Province, Tung Shan county, the Sha Kuang agricultural cooperative decided that full-time able-bodied female laborers should have 270 working days a year, while half-time able-bodied female laborers should have 131 days. But in reality able-bodied women working full-time worked only 170 days while those on half-time put in 60 days. So the requirements were clearly too high.236

In analogy with table 7 (see above preceding section) a higher proportion of men than of women worked in agriculture and a greater proportion of the men could be labeled full-time laborers. According to one investigation of 228 APC's in 1957 women on the average worked 105 days that year while men put in 204 days.237 Of all those working in the APC's the smallest group of men were among those who worked least, less than 50 days in 1957, while exactly the reverse situation prevailed among the women. Their smallest group was among those who worked most, more than 201 days in 1957. Almost twothirds of the male labor power worked more than half the year as compared with one-fifth of the female labor force (see table 9 below).

Women.
Men..

TABLE 9.-NUMBER OF WORKDAYS PERFORMED BY WOMEN AND MEN IN 228 APC's IN 1957

Source: "Income and distribution of APC's in 1957,'' T'ung-chi Yen-chiu (Statistical Research), 1958.8.23, in URS, vol. 13, No. 1, 1958.10.3.

Regional differences, mentioned several times earlier, still persisted with more women working in the South. The difference in the number of workdays was more pronounced among women than among men Isee table 10 below].

234 Report by the Honan Statistical Bureau, "Women are a strong force in socalist construction," Ho-nan jih-pao (Honan Daily) 1958.3.8., in Weekly Report, Sum 1916, p. 12.

235Ending rural unemployment," by Cheng Lin-kuan and Lin Tsung-ho, "People's China", 1956.12.16. 236 Editorial, "Protect the health of rural women and children," JMJP, 1956.5.16.

237 See source for table 9.

TABLE 10.-PROPORTION OF WORKDAYS IN PRODUCTION PERFORMED BY WOMEN AND MEN IN THE MAIN GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS OF CHINA IN 1957

The Northeast region required the least workdays in agriculture while the Southern region demanded the most. The difference was also greatest between women's and men's labor input between these two regions. Women only put in one-third of men's labor in the Northeast region in comparison to almost two-thirds in the Southern region. Hence both women made up a higher proportion of the labor power and their labor input was higher in the South than in the North of China. In Northwest and Northeast China women made up a smaller proportion of the labor force and performed less workdays during 1957 than in any of the other areas in China. A positive correlation is thus established between proportion of women working and the amount of time they work in agriculture. More women work in the South than in the North and they also devote more time to agricultural work. This refutes the claims made for an exceptionally high rate of women's participation for the period 1949-52 for Northeast China (see table 4). In table 11 (below) a compilation has been made over workdays per year performed by women and men of the agricultural population.