¥ !

ten be collected into the same workhouse, and two hundred and fortieth, perhaps not the four
placed at once under the view of the spectator. thousand eight hundredth, part of what they
In those great manufactures, on the contrary, are at present capable of performing, in con
which are destined to supply the great wants sequence of a proper division and combination
of the great body of the people, every differ- of their different operations.
ent branch of the work employs so great a
number of workmen, that it is impossible to
collect them all into the same workhouse. We
can seldom see more, at one time, than those
employed in one single branch. Though in
such manufactures, therefore, the work may
really be divided into a much greater number
of parts, than in those of a more trifling na-
ture, the division is not near so obvious, and
has accordingly been much less observed.

In every other art and manufacture, the effects of the division of labour are similar to what they are in this very trifling one, though. in many of them, the labour can neither be so much subdivided, nor reduced to so great a simplicity of operation. The division of labour, however, so far as it can be introduced, occasions, in every art, a proportionable' in、 crease of the productive powers of labour The separation of different trades and employTo take an example, therefore, from a very ments from one another, seems to have taken trifling manufacture, but one in which the di- place in consequence of this advantage. This vision of labour has been very often taken no- separation, too, is generally carried furthest in tice of, the trade of a pin-maker: a workman those countries which enjoy the highest degree not educated to this business (which the divi- of industry and improvement; what is the sion of labour has rendered a distinct trade), work of one man, in a rude state of society, nor acquainted with the use of the machinery being generally that of several in an improved employed in it (to the invention of which the one. In every improved society, the farmer same division of labour has probably given is generally nothing but a farmer; the manuoccasion), could scarce, perhaps, with his ut- facturer, nothing but a manufacturer. The most industry, make one pin in a day, and cer- labour, too, which is necessary to produce any tainly could not make twenty.--But in the one complete manufacture, is almost always way in which this business is now carried on, divided among a great number of hands. How not only the whole work is a peculiar trade, many different trades are employed in each but it is divided into a number of branches, branch of the linen and woollen manufactures, of which the greater part are likewise peculiar from the growers of the flax and the wool, to trades. One man draws out the wire; ano- the bleachers and smoothers of the linen, or to ther straights it; a third cuts it; a fourth the dyers and dressers of the cloth! The napoints it; a fifth grinds it at the top for re-ture of agriculture, indeed, does not admit of ceiving the head; to make the head requires so many subdivisions of labour, nor of so comtwo or three distinct operations; to put it on plete a separation of one business from anois a peculiar business; to whiten the pins is ther, as manufactures. It is impossible to seanother; it is even a trade by itself to put them parate so entirely the business of the grazier into the paper; and the important business of from that of the corn-farmer, as the trade of making a pin is, in this manner, divided into the carpenter is commonly separated from tha about eighteen distinct operations, which, in of the smith. The spinner is almost always some manufactories, are all performed by dis-a distinct person from the weaver; but the tinct hands, though in others the same man will ploughman, the harrower, the sower of the sometimes perform two or three of them. I seed, and the reaper of the corn, are often the have seen a small manufactory of this kind, same. The occasions for those different sorts where ten men only were employed, and where of labour returning with the different seasons some of them consequently performed two or of the year, it is impossible that one man three distinct operations. But though they should be constantly employed in any one of were very poor, and therefore but indifferently them. This impossibility of making so comaccommodated with the necessary machinery, plete and entire a separation of all the differthey could, when they exerted themselves, ent branches of labour employed in agriculmake among them about twelve pounds of ture, is perhaps the reason why the improvepins in a day. There are in a pound upwards ment of the productive powers of labour, in of four thousand pins of a middling size. this art, does not always keep pace with their Those ten persons, therefore, could make a improvement in manufactures.

The most o

mong them upwards of forty-eight thousand pulent nations, indeed, generally excel all their
pins in a day. Each person, therefore, making neighbours in agriculture as well as in manu.
a tenth part of forty-eight thousand pins, might factures; but they are commonly more dis-
be considered as making four thousand eight tinguished by their superiority in the latter
hundred pins in a day. But if they had all than in the former. Their lands are in gene-
wrought separately and independently, and ral better cultivated, and having more labour
without any of them having been educated to and expense bestowed upon them, produce
this peculiar business, they certainly could not more in proportion to the extent and natural
each of them have made twenty, perhaps not fertility of the ground. But this superiority
ɔne pin in a day; that is, certainly, not the of produce is seldom much more than in pro-

pense.

portion to the superiority of labour and ex-able to make above two or three hundred In agriculture, the labour of the rich nails in a day, and those, too, very bad ones country is not always much more productive A smith who has been accustomed to make than that of the poor; or, at least, it is never nails, but whose sole or principal business has so much more productive, as it commonly is not been that of a nailer, can seldom, with his in manufactures. The corn of the rich coun- utmost diligence, make more than eight huntry, therefore, will not always, in the same dred or a thousand nails in a day. I have degree of goodness, come cheaper to market seen several boys, under twenty years of age, than that of the poor. The corn of Poland, who had never exercised any other trade but in the same degree of goodness, is as cheap as that of making nails, and who, when they exthat of France, notwithstanding the superior erted themselves, could make, each of them, opulence and improvement of the latter coun- upwards of two thousand three hundred nails try. The corn of France is, in the corn-pro-in a day. The making of a nail, however, is vinces, fully as good, and in most years near-by no means one of the simplest operations. ly about the same price with the corn of Eng- The same person blows the bellows, stirs or land, though, in opulence and improvement, mends the fire as there is occasion, heats the France is perhaps inferior to England. The iron, and forges every part of the nail: in corn-lands of England, however, are better forging the head, too, he is obliged to change cultivated than those of France, and the corn-his tools. The different operations into which lands of France are said to be much better the making of a pin, or of a metal button, cultivated than those of Poland. But though subdivided, are all of them much more simple, the poor country, notwithstanding the infe- and the dexterity of the person, of whose life riority of its cultivation, can, in some measure, it has been the sole business to perform them, rival the rich in the cheapness and goodness is usually much greater. The rapidity with of its corn, it can pretend to no such compe- which some of the operations of those manutition in its manufactures, at least if those factures are performed, exceeds what the humanufactures suit the soil, climate, and situa- man hand could, by those who had never seen tion, of the rich country. The silks of France them, he supposed capable of acquiring. are better and cheaper than those of England, Secondly, The advantage which is gained because the silk manufacture, at least under by saving the time commonly lost in passing the present high duties upon the importation from one sort of work to another, is much of raw silk, does not so well suit the climate greater than we should at first view be apt to

of England as that of France. But the hard-imagine it. It is impossible to pass very ware and the coarse woollens of England are quickly from one kind of work to another, beyond all comparison superior to those of that is carried on in a different place, and France, and much cheaper, too, in the same with quite different tools. A country weaver, degree of goodness. In Poland there are said who cultivates a small farm, must loose a good to be scarce any manufactures of any kind, a deal of time in passing from his loom to the few of those coarser household manufactures field, and from the field to his loom. When excepted, without which no country can well the two trades can be carried on in the same subsist. workhouse, the loss of time is, no doubt, much less. It is, even in this case, however, very considerable. A man commonly saunters a little in turning his hand from one sort of employment to another. When he first begins the new work, he is seldom very keen and hearty; his mind, as they say, does not go to it, and for some time he rather trifles than applies to good purpose. sauntering, and of indolent careless applia tion, which is naturally, or rather necessarily, acquired by every country workman who is obliged to change his work and his tools every half hour, and to apply his hand in twenty different ways almost every day of his life, renders him almost always slothful and lazy, and incapable of any vigorous application, even on the most pressing occasions. Inde pendent, therefore, of his deficiency in point of dexterity, this cause alone must always re duce considerably the quantity of work which

This great increase in the quantity of work, which, in consequence of the division of labour, the same number of people are capable of performing, is owing to three different circumstances; first, to the increase of dexterity in every particular workman; secondly, to the saving of the time which is commonly lost in passing from one species of work to another; and, lastly, to the invention of a great num ber of machines which facilitate and abridge labour, and enable one man to do the work

of many.

First, the improvement of the dexterity of
the workmen, necessarily increases the quan-
tity of the work he can perform; and the di-
vision of labour, by reducing every man's
business to some one simple operation, and
by making this operation the sole employment
of his life, necessarily increases very much the
dexterity of the workman. A common smith,
who, though accustomed to handle the ham-he is capable of performing.
mer, has never been used to make nails, if,
upon some particular occasion, he is obliged
to attempt it, will scarce, I am assured, be

The habit o

Thirdly, and lastly, everybody must be sensible how much labour is facilitated and a bridged by the application of proper machin

ery.

It is unnecessary to give any example. Jis subdivided into a great number of different I shall only observe, therefore, that the inven- branches, each of which affords occupation to tion of all those machines by which labour is a peculiar tribe or class of philosophers; and to much facilitated and abridged, seems to this subdivision of employment in philosophy have been originally owing to the division of as well as in every other business, improve. labour. Men are much more likely to dis- dexterity, and saves time. Each individual (over easier and readier methods of attaining becomes more expert in his own peculiar any object, when the whole attention of their branch, more work is done upon the whole, minds is directed towards that single object, and the quantity of science is considerably inthan when it is dissipated ainong a great va- creased by it. riety of things. But, in consequence of the It is the great multiplication of the produc division of labour, the whole of every man's tions of all the different arts, in consequence attention comes naturally to be directed to- of the division of labour, which occasions, in wards some one very simple object. It is a well-governed society, that universal opui. naturally to be expected, therefore, that some ence which extends itself to the lowest ranks, one or other of those who are employed in of the people. Every workman has a great each particular branch of labour should soon quantity of his own work to dispose of beyond find out easier and readier methods of per- what he himself has occasion for; and every forming their own particular work, wherever other workman being exactly in the same sithe nature of it admits of such improvement. tuation, he is enabled to exchange a great A great part of the machines made use of in quantity of his own goods for a great quantity those manufactures in which labour is most or, what comes to the same thing, for the price subdivided, were originally the inventions of of a great quantity of theirs. He supplies common workmen, who, being each of them them abundantly with what they have occasion employed in some very simple operation, na- for, and they accommodate him as amply with turally turned their thoughts towards finding what he has occasion for, and a general plenty out easier and readier methods of performing diffuses itself through all the different ranks Lit. Whoever has been much accustomed to of the society. visit such manufactures, must frequently have Observe the accommodation of the most been shewn very pretty machines, which were common artificer or day-labourer in a civilized the inventions of such workmen, in order to and thriving country, and you will perceive facilitate and quicken their own particular that the number of people, of whose industry part of the work. In the first fire engines, a a part, though but a small part, has been emboy was constantly employed to open and ployed in procuring him this accommodation, hut alternately the communication between exceeds all computation. The woollen coat,

the boiler and the cylinder, according as the for example, which covers the day-labourer, piston either ascended or descended. One of as coarse and rough as it may appear, is the those boys, who loved to play with his com- produce of the joint labour of a great multipanions, observed that, by tying a string from tude of workmen. The shepherd, the sorter the handle of the valve which opened this of the wool, the wool-comber or carder, the communication to another part of the ma- dyer, the scribbler, the spinner, the weaver, chine, the valve would open and shut without the fuller, the dresser, with many others, must his assistance, and leave him at liberty to di- ail join their different arts in order to comvert himself with his play-fellows, One of plete even this homely production. How the greatest improvements that has been made many merchants and carriers, besides, must upon this machine, since it was first invented, have been employed in transporting the matewas in this manner the discovery of a boy rials from some of those workmen to others who wanted to save his own labour. who often live in a very distant part of the All the improvements in machinery, how- country? How much commerce and naviga ever, have by no means been the inventions tion in particular, how many ship-builders, of those who had occasion to use the machines. sailors, sail-makers, rope-makers, mus have Many improvements have been made by the been employed in order to bring together the ingenuity of the makers of the machines, different drugs made use of by the dyer, which when to make them became the business of a often come from the remotest corners of the peculiar trade; and some by that of those world? What a variety of labour, too, is ne who are called philosophers, or men of specu-cessary in order to produce the tools of the lation, whose trade it is not to do any thing, meanest of those workmen ! To say nothing but to observe every thing, and who, upon of such complicated machines as the ship of that account, are often capable of combining the sailor, the mill of the fuller, or even the together the powers of the most distant and loom of the weaver, let us consider only what dissimilar objects. In the progress of society, a variety of labour is requisite in order to philosophy or speculation becomes, like every form that very simple machine, the shears with ther employment, the principal or sole trade which the shepherd clips the wool. and occupation of a particular class of citi-ner, the builder of the furnace for smelting Like every other employment, too, it the ore. the feller of the timber, the burner of

zens.

The mi

the charcoal to be made use of in the smelting-view no such extensive utility; the propensity house, the brickmaker, the bricklayer, the to truck, barter, and exchange one thing for workmen who attend the furnace, the mill- another. wright, the forger, the smith, must all of them Whether this propensity be one of those ori. join their different arts in order to produce ginal principles in human nature, of which no them. Were we to examine, in the same further account can be given, or whether, as manner, all the different parts of his dress and seems more probable, it be the necessary conhousehold furniture, the coarse linen shirt sequence of the faculties of reason and speech, which he wears next his skin, the shoes which it belongs not to our present subject to incover his feet, the bed which he lies on, and quire. It is common to all men, and to be all the different parts which compose it, the found in no other race of animals, which seem kitchen-grate at which he prepares his victuals, to know neither this nor any other species of the coals which he makes use of for that pur-contracts. Two greyhounds, in running down pose, dug from the bowels of the earth, and the same hare, have sometimes the appearance brought to him, perhaps, by a long sea and a of acting in some sort of concert. Each turns long land-carriage, all the other utensils of his her towards his companion, or endeavours to kitchen, all the furniture of his table, the intercept her when his companion turns h.r knives and forks, the earthen or pewter plates towards himself. This, however, is not the upon which he serves up and divides his effect of any contract, but of the accidental victuals, the different hands employed in pre- concurrence of their passions in the same obparing his bread and his beer, the glass win-ject at that particular time. Nobody ever saw dow which lets in the heat and the light, and a dog make a fair and deliberate exchange of keeps out the wind and the rain, with all the one bone for another with another dog. Noknowledge and art requisite for preparing that body ever saw one animal, by its gestures and beautiful and happy invention, without which natural cries signify to another, this is mine, these northern parts of the world could scarce have afforded a very comfortable habitation, together with the tools of all the different workmen employed in producing those different conveniencies; if we examine, I say, all these things, and consider what a variety of labour is employed about each of them, we shall be sensible that, without the assistance and co-operation of many thousands, the very meanest person in a civilized country could not be provided, even according to, what we very falsely imagine, the easy and simple manner in which he is commonly accommodated, Compared, indeed, with the more extravagant luxury of the great, his accommodation must no doubt appear extremely simple and easy; and yet it may be true, perhaps, that the accommodation of an European prince does not always so much exceed that of an industrious and frugal peasant, as the accommodation of the latter exceeds that of many an African king, the absolute masters of the lives and liberties of ten thousand naked savages.

that yours; I am willing to give this for that. When an animal wants to obtain something either of a man, or of another animal, it has no other means of persuasion, but to gain the favour of those whose service it requires. A puppy fawns upon its dam, and a spaniel endeavours, by a thousand attractions, to engage the attention of its master who is at dinner, when it wants to be fed by him. Man some times uses the same arts with his brethren, and when he has no other means of engaging them to act according to his inclinations, endeavours by every servile and fawning attention to obtain their good will. He has not time, however, to do this upon every occasion, In civilized society he stands at all times in need of the co-operation and assistance of great multitudes, while his whole life is scarce sufficient to gain the friendship of a few persons. In almost every other race of animals, each individual, when it is grown up to maturity, is entirely independent, and in its natural state has occasion for the assistance of no Note 2. other living creature. But man has almost constant occasion for the help of his brethren, and it is in vain for him to expect it from their benevolence only. He will be more likely to prevail if he can interest their self love in his favour, and shew them that it is for their own advantage to do for him what he requires of OF THE PRINCIPLE WHICH GIVES OCCASION TO them. Whoever offers to another a bargain

CHAP II.

THE DIVISION OF LABOUR.

of

any kind, proposes to do this. Give me that which I want, and you shall have this THIS division of labour, from which so many which you want, is the meaning of every advantages are derived, is not originally the such offer; and it is in this manner that effect of any human wisdom, which foresees we obtain from one another the far greater nd intends that general opuler.ce to which it part of those good offices which we stand gives occasion. It is the necessary, though in need of. It is not from the benevolence very slow and gradual, consequence of a cer- of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker, tain propensity in human nature, which has in that we expect our dinner, but from their re

gard to their own interest. We address our- fessions, when grown up to maturity, is not
selves, not to their humanity, but to their self-upon any occasions so much the cause, as
love, and never talk to them of our own ne- the effect of the division of labour. The
cessities, but of their advantages. Nobody dinerence between the most dissimilar charac-
but a beggar chooses to depend chiefly upon ters, between a philosopher and a common
the benevolence of his fellow-citizens. Even street porter, for example, seems to arise not
a beggar does not depend upon it entirely. so much from nature, as from habit, custom,
The charity of well-disposed people, indeed, and education. When they came into the
supplies him with the whole fund of his sub- world, and for the first six or eight years of
sistence. But though this principle ulti- their existence, they were, perhaps, very much
mately provides him with all the necessaries of alike, and neither their parents nor playfellows
life which he has occasion for, it neither does could perceive any remarkable difference.
nor can provide him with them as he has oc- About that age, or soon after, they come to
casion for them. The greater part of his oc- be employed in very different occupations.
casional wants are supplied in the same man- The difference of talents comes then to be
ner as those of other people, by treaty, by bar- taken notice of, and widens by degrees, till at
ter, and by purchase. With the money which last the vanity of the philosopher is willing to
one man gives him he purchases food. The acknowledge scarce any resemblance.
old clothes which another bestows upon him
he exchanges for other clothes which suit him
better, or for lodging, or for food, or for
money, with which he can buy either food,
clothes, or lodging, as he has occasion.

But
without the disposition to truck, barter, and
exchange, every man must have procured to
himself every necessary and conveniency of
life which he wanted. All must have had
the same duties to perform, and the same
work to do, and there could have been no
such difference of employment as could alone
give occasion to any great difference of ta

The

As it is by treaty, by barter, and by pur. chase, that we obtain from one another the greater part of those mutual good offices which we stand in need of, so it is this same trucking lents. disposition which originally gives occasion to As it is this disposition which forms that the division of labour. In a tribe of hunters difference of talents, so remarkable among or shepherds, a particular person makes bows men of different professions, so it is this same and arrows, for example, with more readiness disposition which renders that difference useand dexterity than any other. He frequently ful. Many tribes of animals, acknowledged exchanges them for cattle or for venison, with to be all of the same species, derive from nahis companions; and he finds at last that he ture a much more remarkable distinction of can, in this manner, get more cattle and veni- genius, than what, antecedent to custom and son, than if he himself went to the field to education, appears to take place among men. catch them. From a regard to his own in- By nature a philosopher is not in genius and terest, therefore, the making of bows and disposition half so different from a street porarrows grows to be his chief business, and he ter, as a mastiff is from a grey-hound, or a becomes a sort of armourer. Another excels grey-hound from a spaniel, or this last from a in making the frames and covers of their little shepherd's dog. Those different tribes of anihuts or moveable houses. He is accustomed mals, however, though all of the same species, to be of use in this way to his neighbours, are of scarce any use to one another. who reward him in the same manner with strength of the mastiff is not in the least supcattle and with venison, till at last he finds it ported either by the swiftness of the greyhis interest to dedicate himself entirely to this hound, or by the sagacity of the spaniel, or by employment, and to become a sort of house- the docility of the shepherd's dog. The effects carpenter. In the same manner a third be- of those different geniuses and talents, for comes a smith or a brazier; a fourth, a tan- want of the power or disposition to barter and uer or dresser of hides or skins, the principal exchange, cannot be brought into a common part of the clothing of savages. And thus stock, and do not in the least contribute to the the certainty of being able to exchange all better accommodation and conveniency of the that surplus part of the produce of his own la- species. Each animal is still obliged to supbour, which is over and above his own con- port and defend itself, separately and indesumption, for such parts of the produce of pendently, and derives no sort of advantage other men's labour as he may have occasion from that variety of talents with which nature for, encourages every man to apply himself to has distinguished its fellows. a particular occupation, and to cultivate and on the contrary, the most dissimilar geniuses bing to perfection whatever talent of genius are of use to one another; the different prohe may possess for that particular species of duces of their respective talents, by the genebusiness. ral disposition to truck, barter, and exchange, The difference of natural talents in differ-being brought, as it were, into a common en men, is, in reality, much less than we are stock, where every man may purchase whataware of; and the very different genius which ever part of the produce of other men's talent. appears to distinguish men of different pro-, he has occasion for. Note 3.

Among men,