sagar pass to the Pamir. His journey confirmed the general accuracy of the maps, and presents many features of interest. The results of this later journey were so striking that it was at once resolved to despatch another and a larger expedition from Samarcand. It was to follow the same route as that by which M. Maieff returned, and to turn off at Deh-i-nau on the Surkhan, whence it would proceed to Hissar, Khawaling, and Gharm, on the road to Ushkurghan in Ferghana. From Gharm it was to visit the Pamir. The scientific officer attached to this expedition, M. Muschketoff, has lately published some of the geogra phical results of that journey. His observations apply exclusively to the northern part of the Pamir, known by the name of Chargosch. The geological examination of the strata proved that the structure of the Pamir is mainly granite, metamorphic clay, and mica slate, and that the granite outcrops are generally the same in their direction as those of the Tian Shan, viz., east-north-east. The highest summit in this part of the Pamir is that peak called after General Kaufmann, which towers for twenty-five thousand feet into the air. M. Muschketoff's examinations of the region go to show that Humboldt was wrong in supposing that the Pamir represented a meridional mountain system, to which the name of Bolor was given. M. Muschketoff explains the misconception which the appearance of the Pamir had given rise to, in the following manner:-"On the ground both of the geological structure of the Pamir and Alai, as well as on the basis of the geological data collected by Stoliczka, I

find no support for the assumption of a regular meridional mountain system. The aspect of these mountains, which has caused the erroneous belief, I should explain by the fact that eastward from the Kara Kul the Trans-Alai diorite mountains (which run from east to west) and the south Khokand syenite mountains (which run east-north-east) meet with the Ferghana diabase mountains (which have a northwest direction), whereby a colossal aggregation of mountain masses takes place, which is increased by the accession of the Pamir granite range (stretching east-north-east). The entire mass of this meeting point belongs to different mountain systems; but from a distance, from whatever side it be regarded, from east or west, the outline on the horizon of the several concurrent heights gives the impression of an entire meridional chain, which in reality does not exist.' This is the latest opinion upon the structure of the Pamir, and in absence of other information M. Muschketoff's criticism must be accepted as correct. The Russian frontier has, as the result of these Pamir explorations, been pushed southward for a distance of eighty miles, thus including in the Czar's dominions both Karategin and the great Kara Kul lake.* In this direction Russia evidently expects to be able to work a way to Lake Victoria and the head-waters of the Oxus.

Of the almost inaccessible district of Karategin we know scarcely anything. Mr. Schuyler endeavoured to visit it, but the Khokandian officials refused to give

* This assertion is based on the new Russian map of Central Asia accompanying these volumes.

him the necessary permission. In 1869-70 a difficulty occurred between Bokhara and Khokand as to which state Karategin owed fealty, and Russia, under whose auspices the negotiations were carried on, solved the question by deciding that Karategin should be practically independent. Geographically speaking, Karategin should be Bokharan, but historically and politically it should have belonged, as it mostly has, to Khokand, which had always been in the habit of selecting the Beg or chief. When Russia annexed Khokand in 1876 Karategin virtually became a Russian possession. The inhabitants of this region are represented to be an exceedingly primitive people, and the following particulars have leaked out concerning their customs. They have no conception of measure or weight, no booths, caravanserais, or fairs, such as are common to all nations, and Eastern ones more especially. They possess no knowledge of public institutions, but live on in a state of primitive equality that is generally considered synonymous with Arcadian myths. They are principally cattle breeders, and with very few exceptions there are no agriculturists. The barrenness of their country is not redeemed by any feature of a brighter possibility such as is to be found in all the valleys of the Hindoo Koosh; but the total wealth of the district forms a common stock, out of which the necessities of the whole population are supplied. In times of dearth the suffering is often slight, as the whole community shares alike. The crime of theft is unknown, and the Karateginese are alike famed for their good humour and their sense of honour.

Mr. Schuyler, who saw some of these people in Khokand, describes them as "swarthy, thick-set, goodnatured fellows."

From another source we learn that the mission sent to the Pamir consisted of Messrs. Severstof, Skassi, and Captain Schwartz, in addition to M. Muschketoff; and that its operations were carried on under considerable difficulties through the inclemency of the weather. The cold was often very great, the thermometer going as low as 25° below zero centigrade, but the actual cold was felt still more keenly through the bitter winds that swept across the barren wastes of the Pamir. On the Pamir there are no forests and hardly any herbage; and the expedition had to carry its own fuel with it. As the season was so advanced when the expedition left Tashkent in September, it is not at all fair to judge from the report of this expedition what the climate and condition of the Pamir are during the spring. No inhabitants were found either on the Pamir or in the Alai valleys, and the Russians assumed that they had taken shelter in the warmer valleys of Ferghana. They traversed the Shart Pass, which is the next to the Terek, on their road from the Alai to Pamir, then taking the same route as Scobelef's force in 1876. The river Kok-su was here reached and to some extent explored; but we have yet to learn accurately what is the true course of the Pamir rivers, which have been several times christened and re-christened. The natives assert that this particular stream flows eastward through Kashgar and into Lob-Nor, and is known as Tarimbal. If this be correct the Kok-su is merely

the head-water of the Kashgar river, which eventually becomes the Tarim. The expedition did not get much beyond the Kok-su, on account of the snow, but returned viâ Osh to Tashkent, having acquired most valuable information on many points, and with a fine ornithological collection. Captain Schwartz revised the map he had previously prepared, but these new results are not of course shown on the official map to which we have already referred. Russia has thus stored up considerable information concerning the Pamir during the past twelve months, and the rapidity with which the missions succeed each other proves that the Tashkent authorities believe that explorations in the Pamir khanates, over which their influence is steadily increasing, may prove as advantageous in a political and a military sense as much as they are for scientific or geographical benefits.

In close connection with these Pamir explorations are the efforts that are being made to collect historical information concerning the Aryan races of the Upper Oxus, the Hindoo Koosh, and the Western Himalaya. The Russian Geographical Society has commissioned M. Minaieff to compile a systematic digest of whatever information has been acquired of those primitive peoples either by Russian, English, or native travellers. This work when completed should be most interesting, as much remains to be done in this respect. The people of the valleys of the Hindoo Koosh, the Kafirs, the Wakhis, the Chitralis, etc. etc., and also those of the Pamir, are of great sentimental interest; and their practical political importance may some day become