In this state of society was the population of our island during the Heptarchy.

The formation of the feudal system, or the establishment of "feudes," * was another step in the advance of civilisation, by rendering the tenure or fixed property in the soil more secure. By this plan, sudden inroads or permanent conquests by one people over another were rendered less frequent. In itself, however, the feudal system was a most intolerable and grievous oppression. A few chiefs, or great proprietors, exercised arrogant and unlimited power over a humble and wretched population of serfs and bondmen. When the Celtic tribes poured out from their northern hives in vast numbers over the regions of Europe at the declension of the Roman Empire, the feudal scheme was organised in their newly-acquired territories, as the safest means of securing what they had won; and accordingly large districts of land

* This word, of Saxon origin, "is defined by civilians to be a grant of lands, honours, or fees, either to a man during the will of his lord or sovereign, or for the feudatory's own life, or to him and his heirs for ever, upon condition that he and his heirs do acknowledge the donor and his heirs to be their lord and sovereign, and shall bear faith and allegiance to him and his for the said tenure, and do such service for the same as is covenanted between them, or as is proper to the feude." -- BAILEY.

were allotted by the conquering leader or king to the superior officers of his army, and by them dealt out again in smaller portions to subalterns or deserving soldiers, as a conditional reward or stipend for service, either at home or in the wars, for him by whom they were given. If these conditions were neglected, the land reverted to the grantor. Under this system the vanquished population became serfs or villains, and cultivated the soil.

The establishment of feudal tenure by the Northern conquerors proved so efficacious that it was generally adopted by the rulers of those countries which had been provinces of Rome, but had fallen under other masters in the general wreck of the Roman Empire. Thus, in a few years, the doctrine of military fealty, or the feudal system of tenure, extended itself over the whole of the western world.

The next state of civilisation is that of absolute monarchy. By the assistance of the Church, the sovereigns of most nations of Europe were enabled to crush the baronial power, and to consolidate their people under one uniform code of laws, and one entire system of government. By this change, a

very considerable amelioration took place in the several communities of Europe. The laws were administered, although, perhaps, not impartially, and facility of communication, which had been checked by the squabbles of the feudal barons, was promoted. This improvement occurred in different parts of Europe at various periods. The absolute dominion of the sovereign was an assistance to the march of improvement, and was the only sort of government qualified to repress turbulence, or prevent anarchy, that could be devised in those rude, warlike, and unlettered times.

The fifth and last state of civilisation is that in which security of person and property is firmly established, by a just and complete administration of good laws, where public opinion has the greatest influence, and where more happiness is found in the community.

We repeat, that the greater the amount of the middle class in proportion to the other classes, the greater is the extent of a nation's happiness. It is in this class that individual exertion is chiefly found; and individual exertion adds wealth to the community. certain portion only of human labour can be

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productive of subsistence; the other part is instrumental to enjoyment: both are equally necessary, the one exciting the other. Let us call the former the organ for producing food, the latter that for producing clothing or luxuries. It signifies nothing as to the main purpose of trade, how superfluous the latter production may be, or whether the want of it be real or imaginary. For example, a watch may not be very necessary to a peasant; yet, if the peasant will work one hour a day additional for a year, to get a watch, the true design of trade is answered; and the watch-maker, while he polishes the case, or files the wheels, is contributing to the production of corn as effectually, though not so directly, as if he was ploughing the land. Thus it follows, that manufactures increase the produce of the earth; as, whatever is required of luxuries by those who produce food, must be obtained by an additional amount of exertion on their part. By these means, in this last stage of civilisation, that state in which Great Britain is at present, a vast amount of wealth, created as already mentioned, augments hourly the middle class, and the happiness of the community is in

creased, while civilisation and public opinion are fostered.

It must, however, be admitted, that some consequences attend this state that may partially counteract the benefits mentioned. When, by introducing more superfluities into general use, luxury has rendered the usual accommodations of life more expensive and artificial, the difficulty of maintaining a family comfortably, in accordance with the established mode of living, becomes greater. Marriages therefore are less frequent, as men of the first education, and of the most refined habits, will not marry to sink their place or condition in society, or to forego those indulgences to which they are accustomed, or which, observing among their equals, they consider necessary. To this consideration may be added the change or loss of property by speculations, and the situation of persons of high intellect and finished education, whose means do not correspond with their acquirements.

Although these drawbacks, arising from the luxury so prevalent in this state of civilisation, may be occasionally felt severely, and are to be regretted, yet on the whole it must be

* See Paley, Moral Phil. vol. i.