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CHAPTER X

FOREIGN IDEOLOGY AND PROPAGANDA

What role does the ideology of a government play in its propaganda in international communications? What is the role of the form of government? Opinion is divided on these questions now, as in the past, although the trend of thinking of an increasing number of scientists since the late 1940s has been to emphasize national rather than ideological interests, to stress the similarities in the behavior of states over time rather than the differences.

Nevertheless, the form of government is an important consideration in some respects. For example, as an audience, a largely closed society presents major problems for the communicator. Penetration of the barriers can be made difficult, and the uniformity of ideas allowed open circulation by the government often limits the ambitiousness of the effort as well. However, the government often develops a credibility problem as a result of its communications control.

Neither is ideology's effect one-sided. Although an ideology may increase the personal commitment of its adherents and those whose conversion it seeks to complete, its economic, racial, religious, or other social ramifications may induce great fear in the majority, whose members usually cling to important cultural traditions in most societies, and may in the process alienate many leaders.

The essays in this chapter indicate, then, that the principles of communication are valid for all states, and that it is the audience and the objective that determine the theme and media used in a message, not the nature of the communicator's regime.

At the same time, a state identified with an all-embracing ideology may well choose to place many of its psychological initiatives in the framework of this ideology. Similarly, revolutionary regimes, which must present universalistic values as a raison d'être, often espouse equally intransigent positions in their propaganda. In neither case is the ideology determinative of the appeal: rather it is the interests of the communicator as he perceives them that take precedence.

It is stressed that the content of the illustrative material in this chapter should not be considered as having official Department of Defense approval, express or implied.

ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT SYSTEM

Whether and to what extent political communications are effective may be influenced by the degree of control over the flow of the communications to and within the audience. It is clear that totalitarian regimes can exert a much greater control over communications channels, and hence over the information to which their citizens are exposed, than freer societies. On the other hand, individuals in closed societies tend to develop filters for regime communications and increasingly rely upon other means of receiv

ing information. Moreover, technological development and growth in the volume of communications recently have circumvented many of the controls that were formerly at the disposal of totalitarian regimes.

Democratic theory assumes public access to most information so that the public may reach decisions on matters of public concern after informed deliberation. Totalitarian government rests on almost complete control of information. From these antithetical positions it should not be assumed, however, that persuasive appeals should be eschewed by democratic governments domestically or internationally. Both models rely on domestic popular support—or at least tolerance—and both seek to justify their actions in communications to external audiences in order to obtain an international environment conducive to the realization of national objectives. Moreover, the two extreme points on the political spectrum serve to illustrate principles, not to portray governments actually in power which, inevitably, fall somewhere between the complete democratic model, on the one hand, and the totalitarian paradigm, on the other.

A survey of international communications shows that without exception each government explains its policies and practices to world audiences. Different techniques may be employed, different audiences appealed to, and different messages conveyed, but each regime, in its own. style, attempts to sway attitudes in terms which may or may not employ ideology or other symbols to persuade.

PROPAGANDA AND THE MONOPOLY OF MASS
COMMUNICATIONS*

BY CARL J. FRIEDRICH

and

ZBIGNIEW BRZEZINSKI

Central to the effective organization and operation of totalitarian government is the control of mass communication processes and output. Propaganda is woven into almost all aspects of life in totalitarian systems; it is not treated as merely one tool in isolation from others.

* * * * *

The nearly complete monopoly of mass communication is generally agreed to be one of the most striking characteristics of totalitarian dictatorship. It is also one of the features which clearly differentiates it from earlier forms of autocratic rule, as we have noted. Modern masscommunication media, the press, radio and television, and the film, have been developing gradually and have, under competitive conditions, been looked upon as an essential condition of large-scale democracy. For,

*Excerpts from "Propaganda and the Monopoly of Mass Communications," Chapter 11, Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy by Frederich and Brzezinski, 2d ed. rev., Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1965. Copyright 1956, 1965 by The President and Fellows of Harvard College. Reprinted by permission.

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