It would be difficult to over-emphasize the problems and difficulties attendant on modernization and national development in the Far East. Demands for modernization are strong among urban elites, but weak from the primarily unreceptive rural sectors. Peasants prefer to secure social justice and agricultural reforms with few resultant changes in their traditional way of life. Yet, political leaders have over-extended themselves through efforts to modernize their country too rapidly. Some of them, however, like U Nu and Sihanouk, have realized that traditional mores also must be maintained and adapted to the times if stability is to be assured.

Meanwhile, the process of modernization has progressed enough to add new strains to the old as traditional and modern groups clash. Radical changes have produced expectant new social groups, plans without managers, factories without technicians and university graduates without jobs.

COMMUNICATION PATTERN

With the exception of Japan and the urban centers of the Far East, the communication pattern is far from adequate for the nations' needs. A low level of information is characteristic for all sectors except the small urban elites. The press remains limited largely to urban distribution and radio receivers are too few and not widely dispersed. Most information is still transmitted through informal channels. Mass media serve to feed an increasing amount of information into informal channels.

.Consequently, the effective utilization of the village council is of considerable importance to leadership as a source of feedback and as a molder of peasant opinion on the government's authority and programs. District leaders and provincial governors share an important role as a feedback source to the leadership and as molders of opinion.

With the exception of Japan, and possibly Malaya and the Philippines, the general communication process providing for a dialogue between decision makers and the public is best characterized as a "semi-closed" one; the public generally cannot express itself by pressure or representative strikes or press campaigns or non-manipulated elections. Yet street demonstrations-albeit ones often organized by political parties for their own benefit, expressions of opinion in the press and intellectual quarterlies and party conferences and conventions, serve to keep the communication process partially open.

ATTITUDES

National Development, Economic

and Technical Aid

In most of the Far East, expectations of social reform and desires for economic modernization exist among Westernized, urbanized elites. The

peasant masses seek land reform, agricultural credit and simple but modern tools, yet cling to the traditional values and social customs.

While the new governments find it difficult to administer even the most basic national functions, they encounter still greater difficulties when they try to initiate change. Efforts to carry out planned economic development become especially burdensome when communication facilities are inadequate and few competent administrators and technicians exist. Since accomplishment lags far behind promise, national discontent is intensified.

Yet "modernization" is an important political issue and a rallying point for intellectual leaders and modern elements of the new states. These are also the most active political elements who can make the issue of modernization a source of unrest, discontent and turmoil in the area.

The new nationalists are seeking ideological and cultural identity, a workable political and economic system, and determined, strong leaders. Their inward search for a national character leads them to probe for a synthesis of traditional and modern ideas. Since national unity is one of the most serious problems confronting these countries, the role of the military as an agent of nationalism in South Korea, South Viet-Nam, Burma, Thailand and Indonesia, cannot be overlooked. Military organizations, which often stage coups for nationalist reasons, have the discipline, talent, esprit de corps and coercive means to reorganize and operate their country more effectively than the diffuse bureaucracies. Yet military rule often creates political tension and an atmosphere more favorable to the growth of communism than democracy.

[International Issues]

There is a massive disinterest, even by Asian elites, in most international issues which do not directly impinge on their interests. The burning struggle in the world for them is not the Berlin crisis or even the ideological struggle between communism and democracy, but rather the development of their own new nations. They say so, quite vigorously. TARGET GROUPS

The following sections will discuss the various groups involved in change. The groups are discussed, for convenience, under the usual three major categories. The categories should be considered flexible, however, for the early stage of modernization and change has not yet produced definitive patterns and roles.

General Populace. This numerically preponderant group is generally inarticulate but capable of becoming a strong force if stirred by their leaders. It includes peasants, ethnic minorities, army enlisted men, and unskilled laborers. The great size of these masses contrasts sharply with the small number of elite who control the society.

Middle Class. This is an expanding group, containing articulate political forces, and one where the distinction between "westernized" and

"traditional" is more strikingly apparent. It includes professionals, the religious hierarchy, educators, students, communicators, civil servants, junior army officers, labor leaders and a growing group of businessmen.

Elite This includes top government officials, senior army officers and the monarchy.

Voluntary Associations and Interest Groups. A fourth category might deal with combinations of these population elements into voluntary associations and interest groups.

General Populace

Peasants. They comprise the bulk of Southeast Asian society and are often least receptive to change because of their lack of education, fears of the supernatural, devotion to religious principles and tradition. Although they are not directly involved in the structure of power or the process of government, their support is necessary for those in power. Thus, indirectly, they influence the government. Although the peasants are largely unorganized, cooperatives are gaining popularity and politicians especially the Communists-are attempting to organize them. Among the peasantry, the village headman either because of his age, education or respectability, is given high credence and serves as a source of news and advice for the peasants.

Labor. A major problem for this group is created by the frequently abrupt transition many workers make from a more or less primitive rural subsistence economy to a technologically more advanced urban economy. Governments in the area are attempting to help them adjust to the requirements of an industrialized life in order to prevent them from becoming dissatisfied and a prey to opposition leaders. Labor, particularly plantation, dock and mine workers, has been a prime target for Communist infiltration tactics.

Urban Proletrariat. This urban, unskilled labor group, separate from the urban industrial labor force, includes, for example, street vendors and pedi-cab drivers, who have become socially mobile and are beginning to respond to and participate in political parties and small pressure groups. This group-breaking away from traditional social controls -has suffered personal maladjustment and disorganization; juvenile delinquency and unemployment frequently plague this group. As their desire for education and advancement increases along with their discontent, they will become increasingly important as a target for mass communicators, politicians and others competing for their support. Army Enlisted Men. The enlisted men come from the lower classes and have little chance for education, exert little influence and are more susceptible to blandishments from any side which can offer them a better life. They are important because they have roots in the local community and often carry information to it.

Ethnic Minorities. The number of indigenous tribal minority groups in Southeast Asia created by physical conditions and differences of race,

attitudes, beliefs, and language, is estimated in the hundreds. Sharply differentiated from one another, these tribal groups who generally live in a semi-savage state have in common a fierce pride in their own organizations and cultural patterns and an intense fear of being swallowed up by the alien culture of the majority. These do not include alien minorities such as the Chinese or Indians.

Although often small in number, the individual minority groups when combined account for a fairly large segment of the area population. They constitute elements in the society which are highly susceptible to dissident and subversive activities. If well organized and directed, these minority groups could exert considerable influence.

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Women. With increasing urbanization and improved education and organizational consciousness, women are assuming more active roles. Their influence is generally projected through women's organizations, but they are also important in some business circles and in education. Limited surveys to date show that women are a substantial and distinct target audience. It would be most difficult to reach both men and women of the non-elite group with a single program or magazine. Radio listening, which permits women to have contact with the outside world while performing their household duties, appears to be a major source of information for women who own sets.

Middle-Level Groups

Mass Communicators. Because of the relative lack of effective political opposition groups, civic and special interest associations or pressures from academic personnel or professional classes, newspaper editors and others in mass media work must carry the heavy burden of responsible instruction of public opinion.

Often, however, the government itself employs many of the nation's best publicists, and their consequent removal from journalistic action leaves the field open to less responsible, less educated journalists. In addition, the low status of journalists, in comparison with those into whose public conduct they would inquire, tends to hamper the press. Many reporters are critical of those they consider "politicians" but often their criticism is tempered by the relationship of the newspaper publisher or editor to a particular party or politician. The editorialists. find it easier to write about Western foreign policies and problems than the current problems of their own societies; however, this does not mean that foreign news coverage is heavier than domestic coverage. There are exceptions, of course, and as the number of educated editors in Southeast Asia increases, they will be most influential in understanding and helping to advance modernization.

Religious Leaders. (Buddhist) Buddhist monks provide the largest number of public-opinion molders in Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and to a lesser extent, South Viet-Nam. The members of the Sangha (order of monks) belong to individual monasteries and sects but have a cohesive organization. The chief monk or abbot-head of the

local wat (pagoda)-possesses high prestige within the community, is a source of influence and information and is one of the few members of the village community (outside of the teachers) who reads newspapers and is a transmitter of new ideas.

Buddhist monks now receive training in state schools and indoctrination in secular thoughts and methods. Because of increasing social and political consciousness, the monks are attempting to keep abreast of modern learning and methods.

In addition to the role of the Sangha, powerful Buddhist societies of laymen, such as the Sasana council in Burma, play an important role as informal pressure groups. Although theoretically aloof from secular affairs, there is ample evidence in recent history to indicate that these groups respond dynamically to important issues such as the threat of local Communists to the Buddhist religion and the Communist threat to Buddhism in Tibet.

(Islamic) In the Muslim country of Indonesia, where religion is inextricably interwoven with politics, the role of the ulema (Muslim scholar and teacher) is not as influential as the monk in the Buddhist world. Ulemas are apparently more influential in the outer islands, where there are greater manifestations of devotion to religion, than in Java where political affiliations are as important as religious ones. The ulemas are frequently highly nationalistic and make their influence felt through the political party, the Nahadatul Ulama.

Divisions within Islam occur along two prominent lines. There is the social cleavage in Java between the communities of the Santri the devoutly Muslim persons often associated with town or village trade, and the communities of the intelligentsia or middle class of the cities and large towns who are nominally Muslim but accept most of the cultural content of Western civilization and are more receptive to change. A second type of cleavage has developed inside the Muslim Santri between modernism and religious reform as expressed by the urban small traders and the orthodox Masjumi Party. Such cleavages condition attitudes toward change and make different communications approaches necessary.

(Catholic) In the predominantly Catholic Philippines, the priests are very influential and the Church is a dominant force second only to political parties. In South Viet-Nam, although Catholics form only ten percent of the population, there is a large percentage of Catholics in high government positions.

Labor Leaders. They tend to be middle-class intellectuals strongly favoring economic development and change. They are becoming influential because of their affiliation with political parties and the support they can devliver by virtue of their control of mass organizations. Many have simply chosen the unions as an additional stepping-stone to power, prestige or just to provide a higher standard of living. Junior Army Officers. Junior army officers, together with university