These studies were limited largely to one PSYOP communication medium (leaflets), and to one audience (the enemy military). The research was not done in close proximity to the operator and results were nearly always made available too late to be useful.

For PSYOP intelligence analysis to be of significant value it is important that research findings be integrated into an operational complex. Otherwise the data collected are usually only of historical interest. As far as can be determined, no PSYOP information system or significant doctrinal guidance resulted from the Korean PSYOP studies.

Open-ended interrogation techniques, which allowed maximum freedom for respondents to describe the situation in which they found themselves prior to surrender, were used in Korea. Such interrogations yield large amounts of varied information, the analysis of which requires particular care. Specific PSYOP questions used in the open-ended interrogations late in the Korean War in the study of Chinese and North Korean prisoners are intermixed and deal with motivation patterns, PSYOP vulnerabilities, communication patterns, and the effect of PSYOP leaflets. It is interesting to note that the interrogations were conducted by Korean civilians employed locally who operated under the supervision of American civilian researchers, mostly professional psychologists.

A necessary and important consideration with regard to exploitation of prisoners of war for PSYOP purposes is the international treaty provisions concerning the questioning and treatment of prisoners of war. The 1949 Geneva conventions for the protection of war victims have been ratified by the United States and came into force on February 2, 1956. They state:

Every prisoner of war, when questioned on the subject, is bound to give only his surname, first names and rank, date of birth and army, regimental, personal or serial number, or failing this, equivalent information.2

Consequently, individual prisoners of war cannot be exploited for PSYOP unless they agree, and their exploitation is in accordance with policy guidance. However, it is important to understand that PSYOP can exploit prisoners of war in many ways: First, individual prisoners may agree to write and be photographed for PSYOP testimonials, preapre audio tapes, or assist in the preparation of PSYOP material (program implementation); second, prisoners may volunteer to provide information on the communication process, significant PSYOP targets, and the effect of PSYOP programs; third, prisoners may agree to cooperate in the testing of PSYOP communications, either individually or as members of a panel. In the first instance, the prisoner would be compromised and could be considered a traitor by his nation. However, as a technique to deter compromise, facial characteristics can be masked or blurred. The other ways of exploiting prisoners of war could be accomplished covertly, with little danger of compromise.

U.S. policy is that individual prisoners should not forcibly be exploited, but the good treatment of prisoners as a group is a PSYOP theme that should be exploited in a vigorous and aggressive manner.

As stated previously, during World War II, Dr. Dicks, the British military psychiatrist, used the technique of the in-depth interview on prisoners of war to construct what he termed the "psychological foundations of the Wehrmacht." This provided valuable insight into the attitudes and motivations of the German soldier. It also served to pinpoint PSYOP vulnerabilities that could be exploited by PSYOP programs (media).

The use of the in-depth interview requires highly qualified professionals; clumsy or aimless in-depth interviewers produce little if anything. This technique requires an officer qualified to use the latest clinical techniques. Moreover, he must have a thorough knowledge of the language and culture involved, and must intimately understand the target audience as a people. For example, William Daugherty writes that:

In the prison camps Dr. Dicks did not disclose his status as a psychiatrist. He was introduced to the respondents as a welfare officer interested in their problems as a prisoner. He interrogated large numbers utilizing a carefully prepared schedule of questions, carried on informal and friendly interviews with many, and kept carefully recorded notes of mass observations. The facts thus gathered were analyzed against the background of such other knowledge available to him concerning the Germans.3

Needless to say, since World War II, the in-depth interview has not been used by the military for the gathering of data from PSYOP sources.

PWD/SHAEF conducted regular attitude surveys in the prisoner-ofwar camps. The polls were important in that they provided a quantitative basis for results found qualitatively by individual interrogations. During the Korean War, considerable use was made of prisoner PSYWAR panels to pretest and post-test leaflets especially in the years 1951-1952. In addition, ORO conducted a number of research studies designed to produce a model of a prisoner-of-war panel system and to examine situational and personal factors associated with the act of surrendering. The latter group of interrogations often took place in rear area enclosures weeks after the prisoner had surrendered.

In the Vietnamese War of the 1960s prisoners of war were interrogated at the tactical level for military information. Tactical PSYOP program exploitation, if any, took place at this time. After prisoners were interned at corps POW camps, PSYOP exploitation usually ceased, because of U.S. policy to scrupulously abide by the 1949 Geneva conventions. Consequently, prisoners were seldom used as a source of information or for the preparation of PSYOP programs and messages.

Defectors and Refugees

Defectors and refugees are valuable sources of PSYOP information, especially in an insurgency environment. In Vietnam, Viet Cong or North Vietnamese soldiers who defected under the Chieu Hoi Program were not classified as prisoners; they could be exploited and used to obtain current information about the attitudes and motivation of the Viet Cong, to provide information on PSYOP vulnerabilities, to determine the best communication channels to reach the Viet Cong, to test communication

content, and to appear at mass rallies and in face-to-face communication programs.

Defectors and refugees can also be used as PSYOP writers, illustrators, announcers, and producers of programs. In fact, they can play an active role in all PSYOP programs.

Civilians

Friendly, neutral, and hostile civilians are important sources of information for PSYOP programs, with friendly civilians used extensively to provide information for all communication programs. Three profitable techniques for obtaining PSYOP data from friendly civilians are in-depth interviews, sample surveys, and panel surveys.

In addition to providing information, civilians can play a key part in social organizations and group discussions when they are used as programed communication channels for PSYOP. Hostile civilians are especially important to PSYOP in an insurgency environment, but have been used infrequently. One of the basic principles for PSYOP-sponsored group discussions is that the "study" be collective-a truly group effort. The groups should be small and have a definite membership, with the same people meeting together over an extended period of time. Each group should have designated leader, who supervises the discussion. sessions. Thoughts and ideas are expressed verbally and every member is encouraged to participate. Informal yet controlled, this technique usually finds acceptance among both rural and urban groups and provides for an extension of the more formal PSYOP media channels. Group discussion, as a PSYOP technique, is extensively employed by the Communist agitprop cadres. This technique and channel could be a significant link in the communication chain for the restructuring of attitudes.

In some environments, opinion surveys (attitude reports) can be conducted on a regular or irregular basis. Such surveys may give a general (or quite accurate) impression of the attitudes of selected groups of the population on subjects of current interest.

The questioning of hostile civilian detainees is a police, not a military function. However, during sweeps, civilians are detained and questioned by the military concerning tactical information. Again it is stressed that PSYOP exploitation of certain civilian targets can be as important as the exploitation of military targets. For example, the civilian infrastructure is a vital element in the total insurgent movement and should be a key target for PSYOP exploitation. The civilian infrastructure is probably the most difficult audience to reach, since it is hardcore and highly motivated to support the insurgent cause. Consequently, current PSYOP-related data are needed to exploit both the infrastructure and that portion of the civilian population in contested areas that supports the insurgency.

Travelers and refugees provide significant current information that can be used to piece together the conditions of daily life in hostile areas, and sometimes it is possible to project the attitudes obtained from such people to the general population in in hostile areas. PSYOP is concerned with the

total picture of society from the individual as well as the group viewpoint. To this end, current information is needed on the nature of the daily occurrences and relationships among the primary groups, secondary group, and the enemy administration. Specific and detailed information is needed on a variety of subject such as: (a) personal security, (b) travel restrictions, (c) police methods and surveillance, (d) the role of religion and the religious leader, (e) traditional versus "progressive" social patterns, (f) the role of the small entrepreneur in the "new social order,” (g) specific prohibitions in connection with the communication process, (h) the "tone of social control, (i) the role of education in the "new order," and (j) the extent and adequacy of social services.

Broadcast Monitoring

Broadcast monitoring is conducted by the Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) of the U.S. government on a worldwide basis. In addition to selected radio broadcasts, news and wire service transmissions are also monitored on a daily basis for analysis purposes.

OTHER SOURCES

Captured Documents

Next to interrogation of prisoners and defectors, captured documents are probably the most important source for PSYOP data. PSYOP intelligence has found that some of the most effective communication delivered to the Viet Cong and NVA has been based on material from captured letters and diaries. For example, the slogan "Born in the North to die in the South," widely used in PSYOP publications, was obtained from a diary of a North Vietnamese soldier. Also, nostalgic poems and letters written by VC and NVA soldiers have frequently been mentioned by returnees and prisoners as having had great psychological impact on them. It has already been mentioned that content analysis of official reports and other documents prepared by VC cadres provides significant information concerning: VC morale, the effect of GVN PSYOP programs, and definitive data on social, military, and political activities of the enemy.

Intelligence Sources

As of 1969 the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) were the only contributors of intelligence for overt PSYOP programs. They provided the bulk of the current information needed to conduct overt PSYOP in denied or enemy-controlled areas in that they provided such information as we now have in regard to target analysis, testing, and the measuring of effect of communication.

Overt PSYOP communication channels directed to denied areas primarily employ radio (shortwave and medium-wave bands) and printed matter. In order to effectively use radio as a PSYOP channel, it is necessary to know:

a. The quantity and type (SW or MW) of receivers available to significant target groups;

b. The listening habits-what are the prime hours for listening to broadcasts;

c. What are the prohibitions and restrictions in owning and listening to "enemy" radio broadcasts;

d. What is the strength (clarity of audio signal) for each station; e. What jamming techniques are used, and what is the pattern of jamming;

f. What specific programs appeal to each target (news, drama, opera, and the like);

g. What is the best length for an average program? can the target audience listen for five minutes or five hours; and

h. What is the reaction of the power elite and specific target groups to the program.

In addition, to prepare appealing and credible radio programs, a great deal of information is needed about the everyday activities of average people in the society. This requires large quantities of information that can be used as the basis for political commentaries, skits, discussions, and "letters of complaint." As far as can be determined, this type of information is not currently available to support PSYOP programs. Furthermore, information of the following types is needed for PSYOP printed media programs directed to hostile and denied areas:

a. The pattern and area covered by specific leaflet drops;

b. The method used by the hostile regime to recover leaflets; do they use the police, security forces, school children, or others to pick up leaflets?

c. The prohibitions imposed on the retention of leaflets;

d. The reaction of the general population to the messages;

e. The reaction of the power elite to message content and programs; f. The reaction of specific targets to message content and programs. Of course, data concerning the above questions are obtained from overt as well as from covert sources. For example, data on PSYOP leaflet and radio programs directed to North Korea are obtained from interrogation of captured agents as well as from political defectors. In addition, some information is obtained from content analysis of newspapers and documents, and still more comes from broadcast monitoring. Radio Free Europe, a private radio network in Europe, has a vast network of correspondents stationed along the rim of the iron curtain who interview travelers and refugees and exploit other sources of information from Communist countries in order to gauge the effect of their broadcasts. Consequently, the exploitation of covert sources is essential, if consistent, rather than random, feedback is to be obtained. In theory, it is possible for a covert intelligence system to provide information on PSYOP programs by using the full range of exploitation techniques,