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LUCHINS, ABRAHAM S. 1957a Experimental Attempts to Minimize the Impact of First Impressions. Pages 62–75 in Carl I. Hovland et al., The Order of Presentation in Persuasion. Yale Studies in Attitude and Communication, Vol. 1. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press.

LUCHINS, ABRAHAM S. 1957b Primacy-Recency in Impression Formation. Pages 33-61 in Carl I. Hovland et al., The Order of Presentation in Persuasion. Yale Studies in Attitude and Communication, Vol. 1. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press. LUMSDAINE, ARTHUR A.; and JANIS, IRVING L. 1953 Resistance to "Counterpropaganda" Produced by One-sided and Two-sided Propaganda Presentations. Public Opinion Quarterly 17:311–318.

MCGUIRE, WILLIAM J. 1961 The Effectiveness of Supportive and Refutational Defenses in Immunizing and Restoring Beliefs Against Persuasion. Sociometry 24:184–197. MCGUIRE, WILLIAM J. 1964 Inducing Resistance to Persuasion: Some Contemporary Approaches. Vol. 1, pages 191-229 in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. Edited by Leonard Berkowitz. New York: Academic press.

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ANTHOLOGIES, SYNTHESES, AND EXPLORATIONS:

AN ATTITUDE CHANGE SAMPLER*

BY GERALD R. MILLER

Social science research on attitude change is particularly relevant to PSYOP. This article reviews the subject of attitude change from several perspectives.

*From "Anthologies, Syntheses, and Explorations," The Speech Teacher, XX, no. 1 (January 1971), pp. 78-84. Reprinted with the permission of The Speech Teacher, copyright holder, and the courtesy of the author.

As I have indicated in a recent QJS (Quarterly Journal of Speech) article, the study of human communication, from Aristotle to the analysis of variance, has reflected a pervasive interest in the persuasive process. In particular, the past several decades have produced a printed explosion consisting of both new insights and old ideas revisited-insights and ideas ranging from grandiose theorizing to microscopic empiricism. As Gustav Bergmann would put it, both the "cloudhoppers" and the "clodhoppers" have had their say.

The 14 books reviewed below-all published within the last five years -capture the flavor of this ongoing scholarly dialogue on persuasion. While they represent a collective outpouring of 4008 pages, they do not exhaust the behaviorally-oriented volumes on attitudes and attitude change printed during this time span. Moreover, spatial limitations have necessitated exclusion of two types of works: those which contain considerable material appropriate to the study of attitude change but which deal with other problems as well (e.g., Feldman, ed., Cognitive Consistency) and those which note relevant theories and research but which emphasize the practice of persuasive communication (e.g., Minnick, The Art of Persuasion).

For purposes of convenience, the books are grouped in three categories, although no claim is made for either their exclusivity or their exhaustiveness. Five of the volumes are Anthologies; they are primarily collections of earlier published articles. Four are Syntheses; they represent attempts to organize, combine, and present diverse theoretical, empirical, and methodological writings. Finally, five of the works are Exploratory; they seek to expand the frontiers of knowledge concerning processes of attitude formation, attitude change, and persuasion.

ANTHOLOGIES

Two of the more ambitious anthologies are Fishbein's Readings in Attitude Theory and Measurement and Rosnow and Robinson's Experiments in Persuasion. The former contains eight articles dealing with historical foundations of the study of attitudes, 23 concerning various methodological aspects of attitude measurement, and 20 describing differing theories of attitude formation and change. The latter assembles 30 well-known studies dealing with the effects of certain source, message, recipient, and channel variables on the process of persuasion.

Examination of the Fishbein volume impresses the reader with the amount of material that has been written about attitude measurement. Even here, as Fishbein points out, the articles chosen cover only part of the territory; they deal exclusively "with the theory underlying attitude measurement rather than with the measurement process per se." The classic articles on standardized measurement techniques are all included: the interested reader can discover the genesis of the Bogardus Social Distance Scale; Thurstone and Likert-type scales; Guttman scaling, and the semantic differential. In addition, there are articles dealing with

multidimensional measurement techniques, alternative measurement techniques, and problems and prospects in attitude measurement.

The fact that 21 of the 23 articles deal entirely with scaling and measurement problems which use as their data base some form of paper-and pencil response is more a commentary on the state of the art than on the representativeness of the selections. The two exceptions are an article by Campbell on the indirect assessment of social attitudes, which takes note of doll-play techniques, and one by Cooper and Pollock, which discusses the use of galvanic skin response to identify prejudicial attitudes. While one or two other articles might conceivably have been included (e.g., Eckard Hess' work with pupilary dilation could not be reprinted due to copyright problems), the conclusion is inescapable that we know much more about measuring verbal indicants of an attitude than we do about measuring other attitudinal behaviors. Elsewhere, I have stressed the need to rectify this shortcoming.

The section dealing with differing theoretical approaches to the study of attitudes strikes an appropriate balance between various strains of theorizing. There are eight articles on consistency theories, an approach that in recent years has undoubtedly spawned the largest research literature. Five of the articles are rooted in behavior theories; while a final section, "Problems, Prospects, and Alternatives in Attitude Theory," not only contains articles presenting the peculiar contributions of such theorists as Bem, Katz, and Kelman but also provides several papers appraising the present status of the most popular theoretical viewpoints.

While Fishbein's volume stresses attitude measurement and attitude theory, Rosnow and Robinson focus on the experimental literature dealing with the persuasive process. The book's organization conforms with Smith, Lasswell, and Casey's famous definition of communication: "Who (Source section) says what (Message section) to whom (Recipient section) through which medium (Channel section) with what effect (Effects section)."This organizational approach makes generally good sense, with the possible exception of the Effects section. Here, the articles included struck me as a persuasive potpourri covering a variety of problems. Moreover, labeling one section "Effects" is somewhat misleading, for the staple commodity of all five major divisions of the volume is effectscentered research.

Each section contains a number of landmark studies-in some instances, I would have preferred less reliance on the old standards and more attention to research of recent vintage-plus several original summaries, prepared by the editors, of the various research enterprises. These summaries are one of the book's major assets; they produce a sense of unity often lacking in collections of reprinted articles.

Both the Fishbein and Rosnow and Robinson volumes are useful additions to the literature for advanced undergraduate and beginning graduate persuasion courses. Their utility is partially dependent upon experienced instructors, although the original summaries in Rosnow and

Robinson might permit its use by a teacher with less grounding in the behavioral study of persuasion.

Jahoda and Warrent's paperback, Attitudes, is an anthology in the fullest sense. Except for a brief introduction and seven one paragraph statements preceding each of the major sections, the book contains no original material. There are 27 classic articles, most of them excerpted, dealing with such topics as the concept of attitude, attitude research, attitude theory, and attitude research metholology.

The volume will make a useful supplement in beginning courses in persuasion or public opinion and propaganda. Its use in advanced classes could contribute to poor scholarly habits, primarily because of the brevity of the excerpts. For example, Campbell's 70 page tour de force, "Social Attitudes and Other Acquired Behavioral Dispositions," is represented by a single page. As I recall, such "quickie" summaries used to be eagerly sought out by harried doctoral students preparing for comprehensives. Hopefully, times have changed.

In attempting to produce a volume suitable for unified, indepth undergraduate and graduate study of attitude change, Wagner and Sherwood's The Study of Attitude Change juxtaposes theoretical and research articles. Beginning with a well-written introduction by Wagner, the book's general pattern is to present a particular theoretical position, followed by a study generated by that position. While most of the articles are reprinted, there is a good orginal paper on cognitive dissonance by Sherwood, Barron, and Fitch. To illustrate how results of a given study can be interpreted in more than one way, Bem's elaboration of self-perception as an alternative to cognitive dissonance and Brehm's criticism of Elms and Janis' incentive theory explanation of counter-attitudinal role-playing are included in the volume. Finally, McGuire's article on inducing resistance to persuasion and Howland's classic reconciliation of experimental and survey approaches to the study of attitude change are deemed to be of sufficient general interest to warrant inclusion.

The book's most serious shortcoming is its minimal attention to learning-behavior theories of attitude change. In fact, save for the inclusion of one or two articles, it would have been appropriate to insert the inevitable scholarly colon at the title's end and to have appended a subtitle noting the cognitive theory bias. On the plus side, Wagner and Sherwood's volume, like Rosnow and Robinson's Experiments in Persuasion, possesses the virtue of unity. Moreover, the scope of the book permits thorough coverage of its contents in a one-term course in persuasion. On balance, it is a useful addition to the literature.

The last of the five anthologies, Elms' Role Playing Reward, and Attitude Change reflects the inevitable outgrowth of constantly increasing specialization in the study of persuasion. All of the 15 articles are concerned with one problem: variables influencing attitude change following an individual's active involvement in counter-attitudinal role-playing. Elms justifies this specialized approach by asserting that "this is an

exciting area of social psychological research. The central issues are not difficult to grasp, and the implications are of broad importance."

For the initiated reader, the controversies are familiar. Beginning with the classic study by Festinger and Carlsmith, the volume captures the continuing debate about the role of justification in inducting attitude change following counterattitudinal role-playing. Both the dissonance theorists-e.g., Cohen and Brehm-and the incentive theorists-e.g., Janis and Gilmore and Elms and Janis-are given their intellectual day in court. In addition, there are articles on the role of relative anonymity and of desicion freedom in the process of counterattitudinal advocacy, as well as Bem's familiar interpretation of the process from a self-perception framework.

Obviously, the volume is too narrowly focused for a survey course in behavioral persuasion research. For advanced classes that concentrate on the problem of counterattitudinal role-playing, the book is a valuable instructional asset. Moreover, it effectively demonstrates the theoretical disagreements often accompanying a body of accepted research findings. In all of the articles, the disagreements are not about what is observed, but rather about how to interpret and explain these observations. In fact, skeptical readers may conclude that the book is little more than a scholarly tempest in a teapot, that researchers should be more concerned with their findings and less engrossed with the interpretation of them.

My one general criticism of these five anthologies concerns their redundancy. Three contain some version of McGuire's paper on inducing resistance to persuasion and of Bem's self-perception analysis of the role of justification in counterattitudinal advocacy. Numerous articles are duplicated in at least two of the anthologies. To argue against such repetition is not to detract from the scholarly stature of these popular papers; rather, it represents a pragmatic pitch for maximum availability and coverage. Hopefully, forthcoming collections will result in a better balance of academic supply and demand in the attitude change market. SYNTHESES

The four books categorized as syntheses differ widely in scope and purpose. Two of the titles suggest primary concern with the critical analysis of theories of attitude formation and change, and the fourth emphasizes practical dimensions of the influence process.

While the Insko volume is titled Theories of Attitude Change, its author indicates he is at least equally concerned with summarizing the research literature generated by each of the theoretical positions-that a theory-centered organization of the literature was chosen in preference to a problem-centered approach. Following an introductory chapter that probes some of the problems of attitude research methodology, there are 12 chapters dealing with contemporary theories of attitude change. The book concludes with a brief evaluative chapter on the general historical development of attitude theory and research.