網頁圖片
PDF
ePub 版

Dissonant Conditions of Role-playing," Journal of Experimental Research in Personality, Vol. 1 (1965), pp. 50-60.

Ervin, Susan and Robert T. Bower. "Translation Problems in International Surveys," Public Opinion Quarterly, XVI (1952).

Fallaci, Oriana. "The Americans Will Lose' Says General Grap, " The Washington Post, Section V, April 6, 1969.

Festinger, Leon. Conflict, Decision, and Dissonance. Stanford Studies in Psychology, No. 3. Stanford Univ. Press, 1964.

Festinger, Leon. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Evanston, Ill.: Row, Peterson, 1957. Festinger, Leon. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1957.

Festinger, Leon and James M. Carlsmith. “Cognitive Consequences of Forced Compliance.," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. 58 (1959), pp. 203-210. Flowerman, Samuel H. “Mass Propaganda in the War Against Bigotry,” Journal of Social Psychology, XLII (1947).

Foote, A. Edward. "A Model of Communication Effectiveness," The Journal of Communication, XX (March 1970).

Frey, Frederick W. "Surveying Peasant Attitudes in Turkey," Public Opinion Quarterly, XXVII (Fall 1963).

Fulton, Robert Barry. "Attitude Change: A Homeostatic Model of the Listener." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana, I11.: 1968.

Fulton, R. Barry. "The Measurement of Speaker Credibility, " The Journal of Communication, XX (September 1970).

Harrah, David. "A Model of Communication, " Philosophy of Science, Vol. 23 (1956), pp. 333-42.

Heider, Fritz. "Attitudes and Cognitive Organization," The Journal of Psychology, Vol. 21 (1946), pp. 107-12.

Heider, Fritz. The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. New York: Wiley, 1958. Hemphill, John A. "PW and Captured Document Doctrine," Military Review, XLIV, No. 11 (November 1969), pp. 65-71.

Holt, Robert T. Radio Free Europe. Minneapolis, Minn.: University of Minnesota Press, 1958.

Hovland, Carl I. “Summary and Implications," The Order of Presentation in Persuasion, by Carl I. Hovland et al. Yale Studies in Attitude and Communication, Vol. 1. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1957.

Hovland, Carl I. and Irving L. Janis. "Summary and Implications for Future Research," Personality and Persuasibility, by Irving L. Janis et al. Yale Studies in Attitude and Communication, Vol. 2. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1959.

Hovland, Carl I., Irving L. Janis, and Harold H Kelley. Communication and Persuasion: Psychological Studies of Opinion Change. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1953. Hovland, Carl I., Arthur A. Lumsdaine, and Frank D. Sheffield. Experiments on Mass Communication. Studies in Social Psychology in World War II, Vol. 3. Princeton Univ. Press; Oxford Univ. Press, 1949.

Hovland, Carl I. et al. The Order of Presentation in Persuasion. Yale Studies in Attitude and Communication, Vol. 1. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1957. Jacobson, Eugene, Hideya Kumata, and Jeanne E. Gullahern. “Cross-cultural Contributions to Attitude Research," Public Opinion Quarterly, XXIV (1960).

Janis, Irving L. "Motivational Effects of Different Sequential Arrangements of Conflicting Arguments: A Theoretical Analysis," The Order of Presentation in Persuasion, by Carl I. Hovland et al. Yale Studies in Attitude and Communication, Vol. 1. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1957.

Janis, Irving L. "Motivational Factors in the Resolution of Decisional Conflicts," Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Edited by Marshall R. Jones. Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1959.

Janis, Irving L. "Persuasion," International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, Vol. 12. New York: The Macmillan Company and The Free Press, 1968.

Janis, Irving L. "Psychological Effects of Warnings," Man and Society in Disaster. Edited by George W. Baker and Dwight W. Chapman. New York: Basic Books, 1962. Janis, Irving L. and Rosalind L. Feierabend. “Effects of Alternative Ways of Ordering Pro and Con Arguments in Persuasive Communications," The Order of Presentation in Persuasion, by Carl I. Hovland et al. Yale Studies in Attitude and Communication, Vol. 1. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1957.

Janis, Irving L. and Seymour Feshbach. "Effects of Fear-arousing Communications," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. 48 (1953), pp. 78-92.

Janis, Irving L. and Seymour Feshbach. "Personality Differences Associated With Responsiveness to Fear-arousing Communications," Journal of Personality, Vol. 23 (1954), pp. 154-166.

Janis, Irving L. and Peter B. Field. “A Behavioral Assessment of Persuasibility: Consistency of Individual Differences," Personality and Persuasibility, by Irving L. Janis et al. Yale Studies in Attitude and Communication, Vol. 2. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1959a.

Janis, Irving L. and Peter B. Field. "Sex Differences and Personality Factors Related to Persuasibility," Personality and Persuasibility, by Irving L. Janis et al. Yale Studies in Attitude and Communication, Vol. 2. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1959b.

Janis, Irving L. and J. B. Gilmore. "The Influence of Incentive Conditions on the Success of Role Playing in Modifying Attitudes," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 1 (1965), pp. 17-27.

Janis, Irving L. and Carl I. Hovland. “An Overview of Persuasibility Research," Personality and Persuasibility, by Irving L. Janis et al. Yale Studies in Attitude and Communication, Vol. 2. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1959.

Janis, Irving L. and Bert T. King. "The Influence of Role Playing on Opinion Change," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. 49 (1954), pp. 211–218.

Janis, Irving L., Arthur A. Lumsdaine, and Arthur I. Gladstone. "Effects of Preparatory Communications on Reactions to a Subsequent News Event,” Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 15 (1951), pp. 487-518.

Janis, Irving L. and M. Brewster Smith. "Effects of Education and Persuasion on National and International Images," International Behavior: A Social-psychological Analysis. Edited by Herbert C. Kelman. New York: Holt, 1965.

Katz, Daniel. "The Functional Approach to the Study of Attitudes," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 24 (1960), pp. 163–204.

Katz, Daniel and Ezra Stotland. “A Preliminary Statement to a Theory of Attitude Structure and Change," Psychology: A Study of a Science. Edited by Sigmund Koch. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959.

Katz, Elihu and Paul F. Lazarsfeld. Personal Influence: The Part Played by People in the Flow of Mass Communications. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1955. A paperback edition was published in 1964.

Kelman, Herbert C. "Attitude Change as a Function of Response Restriction," Human Relations, Vol. 6 (1953), pp. 185-214.

Kelman, Herbert C. and Carl I. Hovland." Reinstatement' of the Communicator in Delayed Measurement of Opinion Change," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. 48 (1953), pp. 327–335.

Kiesler, Charles A. and Lee H. Corbin. "Commitment, Attraction, and Conformity," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 2 (1965), pp. 890-895.

King, Bert T. and Irving L. Janis. "Comparison of the Effectiveness of Improvised Versus Non-improvised Role-playing in Producing Opinion Changes," Human Relations, Vol. 9 (1956), pp. 177-186.

Klapper, Joseph T. The Effects of Mass Communication. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1960. Lasswell, Harold D. The Political Writings of Harold D. Lasswell. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1951.

8. Newcomb, Theodore. "An Approach to the Study of Communicative Arts." Psychological

Review 60:393–404, 1953.

9.

9. Festinger, Leon. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1957.

THE MEASUREMENT OF SPEAKER CREDIBILITY*

BY R. BARRY FULTON

The author contends that the credibility dimensions of agreeableness, conscientiousness, and culture are positively and significantly related to an independent measure of the attractiveness of a public speaker who is judged only by those overt cues which the listener perceives during the speech act.

Trustworthiness and expertness, the two factors of credibility suggested in 1953 by Hovland, Janis, and Kelley,' have been identified more recently in factor analytic studies reported by McCroskey2 and by Bowers and Phillips. "Nevertheless, there are those who insist that this representation of credibility doesn't capture the full complexity of the phenomenon. For example, in a study conducted by Schweitzer and Ginsburg, 28 different factors emerged in the rotated factor matrix for the low-credibility condition, accounting for 74 percent of the variance; under the high-credibility condition, 27 factors accounted for only 60 percent of the variance. Although Schweitzer and Ginsburg reasonably conclude from this interpretation of their data that the factors of trustworthiness and expertness do not adequately represent the complexity of the concept "credibility," their analysis does little to explicate the underlying relationship.

Lying between the reported extremes are a number of factor analytic studies which appear to systematically represent a greater portion of the complexity involved in a judgment of credibility. Berlo and Lemert reported a factor analysis study in which three dimensions were found: trustworthiness, competence, and dynamism3. In addition to these three factors, Whitehead has found a fourth major factor: objectivity." Norman and his associates have identified five factors in a series of studies which have served as the basis for the research reported here. These five factors along with the scale items used in their measurement are compared in Table 1 to factors found in two of the other studies mentioned above.

The genesis of the dimensions which emerge from any factor analytic study is not an unimportant consideration in their acceptance, for no factor analysis can extract factors which were not represented in the original scale items. The Norman scale items had their origin in Allport and Odbert's search for personality traits in a standard dictionary; in 1936 they reported finding some 18,000 terms. From the 4,504 terms which

*Excerpts from "The Measurement of Speaker Credibility," The Journal of Communication, XX (September 1970), pp. 270-279. Reprinted with the permission of The Journal of Communication, copyright holder.

Allport described as the "real" traits of personality, Cattell selected 171 terms to represent synonym groups. By means of cluster analysis, Cattell further reduced this number of 36 bipolar pairs from which he has reported finding 12 stable personality factors. Analyses by other researchers have revealed as few as five recurrent factors.7

Norman used four scales from each of the five dimensions in a number of studies in which subjects nominated one-third of the members of some peer group on Pole "A" and one-third on Pole "B" of each scale. A varimax rotation of a factor analysis of the data revealed, as hypothesized, five orthogonal personality factors. In a later study by Passini and Norman, the same five factors emerged with subjects whose contact was limited to being together for less than 15 minutes without opportunity for verbal communications.".

[blocks in formation]

A follow-up analysis by Norman and Goldberg revealed that, even with this minimal contact among subjects, there was some degree of ratee relevance in the choice of scale items. Their explanation for this relevance is based on what Cronbach has termed an "implicit personality theory": If, for example, it were generally held within the implicit personality theories of these raters that persons who are irresponsible and undependable are also careless, unscrupulous, fickle, and slovenly and if the shared stereotype of the person who is careless and slovenly included aspects of dress and grooming, then a ratee who gave such an appearance in this setting was, in the absence of more specifically relevant information, apt to be rated as possessing all traits in the set.io

If the five factors of personality reported by Norman and associates are accepted, it follows that these same factors might operate as underlying dimensions of credibility during the speech act; this proposition is explored in this article.

EXPERIMENT I

Through an analysis of the literature on interpersonal attraction an attempt was made to identify those credibility cues which might serve as indicators to a respondent of some set of underlying credibility dimensions. 11 The suggested pairing follows:

[blocks in formation]

Two speakers, undergraduates chosen for their speaking and acting abilities, were trained to represent opposite poles of the five dimensions by speaking and behaving in such a way as to provide for their listeners the cues suggested above. Each of 246 undergraduate subjects heard one of the two speakers deliver (in person) an eight-minute persuasive speech prepared by the experimenter.

The abbreviated scale labels for the 20 items used in the Norman studies were used as labels for opposite ends of 20 semantic differentialtype scales. By assigning values of one through seven for each of the responses by subjects and summing for each of the five dimensions, responses to the two speakers could be compared. Subjects also responded to the following two scales: "I feel that I would probably like this person very much" vs. "I feel that I would probably dislike this person very much," and "I believe that I would very much enjoy working with this person in an experiment" vs. "I believe that I would very much dislike working with this person in an experiment."12 These poles were placed at opposite ends of semantic differential-type scales; responses were scored by assigning values of one through seven and summing as a measure of attraction.

« 上一頁繼續 »