ship in the House of Representatives, apportioned to the population. The functions of the two Houses of Congress were specifically stated and their powers definitely limited.

(3) Separation of powers.-Members of the convention of 1787 feared the oppression of highly concentrated power, whether on the part of an individual or the ascendency of a parliamentary majority. Any suggested scheme to be satisfactory must limit the power of government rather than expand it.

Their plan of government provided for the division of power into three departments:

A legislative body working together in a representative capacity having power of appointment, power of legislation, power to raise revenues, power to appropriate expenditures.

An executive department whose duty was law enforcement and administration of the departments.

A judicial or law-interpreting department, at the head of which stands the Supreme Court.

These departments were separated from each other as far as possible, cooperating when necessary. Checks were placed upon each, preventing anyone from becoming absolute or despotic. They were likewise balanced against each other in such a manner as to preserve the equilibrium of government: States are balanced against the Central Government; House of Representatives is balanced against the Senate; Senate is balanced against the House of Representatives; executive authority is balanced by the legislative; legislative department is balanced by the executive; judiciary is balanced against the legislative, executive, and State governments; Senate is balanced against the President in all appointment to offices and all treaties; people hold a balance against their own representatives through periodical elections.

Among the curbs and restrictions on the powers of the Central Government, the strongest checks are: Establishment of a smaller legislative body with less changing personnel and longer terms based on equality of representation, having coordinate legislative authority, with the exception of revenue bills, which originate in the House of Representatives, and treaties and appointments, which are committed to the President and the Senate; the public sentiment of an intelligent and conservative people; popular elections; short terms of office. Federal judiciary.-One of the exceptional features of our republican form of government is the independence of the Federal judiciary. The strong influence of court decisions upon business and labor conditions, as well as political, is becoming more apparent, inviting the attention of the public to the courts in a way that must increase their efficiency.

The constitution of 1787 established a national system of law which was to be uniform throughout the United States. In order that the interpretation of this law should be maintained on the same level in all parts of the country a Federal court system was necessary.

The jurisdiction of the Federal courts consists of: All cases arising under the Constitution itself; cases arising under the Federal laws and treaties; cases affecting ambassadors, consuls, etc.; cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; cases in which the United States is a party; controversies between States; cases commenced by State against the citizens of another State; controversies between the citizens of the same State under land grants from different States; cases between American citizens and foreign states, citizens or subjects.

The balance of power has been preserved. The Constitution as a whole stands unshaken with but slight encroachments of one department upon the other.

DANGERS TO REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT

Centralization.-Originally "every influence favored the supremacy of the State as the center of gravity in government." Conferring strong powers on the proposed central government was feared and avoided. With the development of industry, invention, business, and transportation, the different sections of the country were brought into such intimate and immediate relations (contacts) that "the knell of State sovereignty was sounded and the supremacy of the Union became inevitable." This tendency to centralize is caused by the increased development of our internal problems and our growing foreign policy.

New and practical problems confront the Government, such as: Great increase of governmental business; rise of technical questions in government; popular demand for greater speed in government action, and increased size and unwieldiness of legislative bodies.

Opposition to centralization of power in the National Government rests upon the general dislike of concentrated power; traditional arguments against centralization, and the natural conservativeness of the people of the country in political matters.

Sectional and class legislation.-Nothing is more repugnant to the American citizen than special, or class, legislation. The founders of our Government sought unity rather than differentiation. The Civil War settled for all time the question of the indissolubility of the Union. The general welfare of the Nation forbids sectional or class legislation. There must be no preference to the North, East, South, or West. Our motto should be "America for all, and all for America."

The problems of capital and labor, employer and employee, can not be solved by unrepublican methods. The suggestion of special legislation is socialistic and communistic in its theory and wholly repugnant to the American character.

Other dangers to representative government are: Socialism or communism which negates property rights; anarchy negates law, substitution of "direct action " for representative government.

Socialism, communism, anarchy, Government ownership, should be avoided as perils that threaten the very foundations of this Republic.

Multiplicity of laws.-The modern tendency of government is to create innumerable laws as corrective or restrictive measures; appointment of special officers for their enforcement, with the consequent restriction of state, community, and personal rights, without regard to the fact that the majority is unprepared, or not willing to accept or respond to the restrictions imposed. Relief from encroachment upon the rights of the people will come when each citizen better learns the art of self-government and exercises his right of franchise. Ignorance of citizens.-Webster said, "On the diffusion of education among the people rests the preservation and perpetuity of our free institutions." In the early colonies one of the first buildings to be erected was the schoolhouse. Here was laid, developed, and subsequently spread the ideals of liberty. One of the foundation stones of representative government is education-a part of our heritage.

An intelligent and informed citizen is an asset to the Nation. The great educational system of America makes it possible for every citizen to best fit himself for the tasks of life. In the common schools all are taught a common language, a knowledge of American traditions, ideals, and philosophy of government. It is possible for all citizens to be able to read the daily and weekly newspapers and magazines and keep informed on political matters and the items of general interest. Through education the barrier that separates the new citizen from the greater enjoyment of his new freedom is removed, a better understanding of American ideals is established, and the influence of subversive propaganda is in large measure destroyed.

SAFEGUARDS-DIRECT RESPONSIBILITY TO THE PEOPLE

Having derived its "just powers from the consent of the governed," the Government of the United States is directly responsible to the people as the highest authority. The United States is governed by public opinion—by the ideas and feelings of the people at large. The frequency of elections and the short terms of office give the people control. By reason of this our representatives are slow to attempt any official action overstepping the bounds of their authority or beyond the approval of their constituency.

Good government remains, therefore, the particular responsibility of the individual citizen, in whom final authority is vested. It will be no higher in its ideals nor just in its administration than the sum of our national character.

Restricted immigration.-Immigrants who enter the United States to exploit her resources without a thought of contributing a share to the general welfare are a menace to our country. Many seeking a haven of relief from the oppressions of poverty, ignorance, and restrictions, a place where gain is made easy and burdens made light, come in the spirit of the belief that America owes them a good living, security, and peace, without a thought of the price that has been paid to obtain these blessings or the cost of their maintenance. Upon these America acclaims the fundamental right to close the door, for this is our home and we have the right to select whom we will to enjoy its privileges and bounties.

America is basically made. She has builded her house, furnished it richly, and set it in order. She refuses to any the right to alter the plans, destroy any part of the structure, or rebuild it to their liking. What she demands for herself she accords to others. It is not her purpose to interfere with the structure of any government.

DESTINY OF AMERICA

The mission of America is to demonstrate that a people can govern itself. When that principle of self-government is endangered it rouses to action the dominant, fierce nature of the Nation, whether the menace comes from rebellion, capital, labor, war, or communism. Instinctively and intuitively the American people respond to the call that the Republic is in danger. This is the fundamental characteristic that underlies the American Nation and will tolerate no dissent.

If in our case the representative system ultimately fail, popular governments must be pronounced impossible. No combination of circumstances more favorable to the experiment can ever be expected to occur. The last hopes of mankind, therefore, rest with us; and if it should be proclaimed that our example had become an argument against the experiment, the knell of popular liberty would be sounded throughout the earth.-Webster.

REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT

QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Name three kinds of world government. Autocracy, democracy, and republic.

2. What is an autocracy?

An autocracy is that form of government in which authority is derived through heredity, regardless of character, capacity, or conduct. Rulers are chosen by virtue of their membership in a reigning family; the people have no choice.

3. What are the principal characteristics of an autocracy?

Tyrrany, bondage, oppression, arbitrariness, coercion, submission, and reaction.

4. What is a democracy?

A democracy is that form of government in which the people meet and exercise the government in person.

5. What are the principal characteristics of a democracy?

Demagogism, license, impulse, agitation, discontent, anarchy, chaos, and socialism.

6. What is a republic?

In a republic the people assemble and administer the government by representative agents.

7. What are the principal characteristics of a republic?

Statesmen, liberty, reason, arbitration, contentment, justice, progress, property rights, freedom of speech and freedom of press, freedom of religion.

8. Which form of government did the makers of the Constitution seek to establish?

A republic whose affairs are administered by public officials with authority derived through election by the people.

9. What is the effect of class legislation?

A republic recognizes the equality of all before the law. Class legislation is based upon passion, prejudice, or stupidity of a certain group.

10. What is the effect of not exercising the right of franchiseTote?

The voice and opinion of the people is not heard; the true representative of the people is not chosen to office, with the consequent possibility that truly representative legislation and government do not exist.

QUESTIONS TO BE ANSWERED BY THE STUDENT IN WRITING

1. Can the Government successfully assume the functions of the home, school, or the church? State your reasons.

2. Why is it necessary to have a government? 3. How does restriction of immigration help—

(a) The social life of America?

(b) The economic life of America?

(c) The political life of America?

34. LESSON 10. Personal responsibility—

(a) Introduction: Problems of modern civilization; American civilization dynamic; civilization a pyramid; heredity and environment; a new world; fixed mental capacity.

(b) Social responsibility:

(1) Personal responsibility: Education; high standards; obedience; discipline; justice.