mitted with fidelity to the next station. This technique of "forward propagation tropospheric scatter" makes White Alice an excellent means of quick communication among isolated posts in the rugged, mountainous Arctic regions. The system is expected to be in operation late in 1958.

To fuse the diverse forces and scientific devices into a coordinated organization, the United States and Canada reached agreement on 1 August 1957 to form the North American Air Defense Command (NORAD) with headquarters at Colorado Springs, Colorado. NORAD is headed by General Earle E. Partridge, USAF, who has a Canadian Air Force air marshal as his deputy. United States forces under operational control of NORAD are the Continental Air Defense Command (a Joint Command, under the Joint Chiefs of Staff), the U. S. Navy forces assigned to air defense, and the air defense forces of Alaska and Greenland. (The Alaska Command is also a Joint Command.)

Detection, identification, interception, and destruction are the four key elements in NORAD's mission. Detection is accomplished through the vast radar surveillance system maintained among the various lines strung across the North American continent and supplemented by Navy picket ships, patrol planes, and "Texas Towers." Identification is performed by special zones in which all aircraft must identify themselves; by checking flight plans; and by Air Force all-weather interceptors that fly up to examine unidentified aircraft at any time of day or night. Interception and destruction are the function of Air Force interceptor aircraft and a variety of ground-to-air missiles. The Bomarc (IM-99) pilotless interceptor was ordered into production in 1957. It has a range in excess of 100 miles and a speed in excess of Mach 2; it will be used for long range area defense. For close-in defense the Army's Nike-Hercules, with atomic capability, will bear the brunt of responsibility.

In 1957 the Air Force succeeded in packaging a nuclear charge compact enough to be usable for air defense without endangering inhabited areas below. On 19 July 1957 an MB-1 Genie rocket was fired over the heads of ex

posed observers at Yucca Flat, Nevada. The charge could have destroyed a whole scattered formation of enemy planes, yet the detonation had no ill effects upon those on the ground. On 30 September 1957 General Thomas D. White, Air Force Chief of Staff, announced the development of long-range radar that could detect ballistic missiles 3,000 miles away. Other technical studies revealed that development of an antiballistic missile destruction device was practicable, and research was devoted to this important project.

Oversea Bases. Following World War II the need became evident for a worldwide system of modern oversea air bases. Three reasons dictated this: the need of maintaining the integrity and effectiveness of the Strategic Air Command; the development of jet aircraft, and specifically of the B-47 jet bomber, which by 1953 had become the "workhorse" of SAC; and our alliances with other nations, especially the NATO countries. (The Strategic Air Command is a Specified Command under the Joint Chiefs of Staff.)

Some World War II bases were still available in 1950, but not enough for our requirements. The Air Force reached out to oversea areas for strategically located airfields from which its bombers could strike quickly at any aggressor. Since most bombers did not by themselves have intercontinental range, the Air Force placed great emphasis upon numerous forward bases. In March 1951 construction began at Thule, Greenland, and by September 1952 this large air base became operational. Also in 1951 the Air Force initiated construction of bases in Morocco, which became an important part of the oversea chain. In late September 1953 the United States and Spain signed an agreement permitting American forces to build air and naval bases on Spanish soil. By the latter part of 1957 four such air bases had been placed in operation.

The Far East Air Forces (FEAF), which had experienced a great buildup in strength during the Korean War, were gradually reduced after the cessation of hostilities in 1953. By July of 1957, FEAF, now known as the Pacific Air Forces (PACAF), had moved its headquarters to Hawaii, where it ex

ercised control over all USAF units in the Pacific.

The strength of the U. S. Air Forces in Europe (USAFE) has grown steadily as they have been given responsibility for providing tactical air forces for NATO, and for the host of other duties stemming from American commitments to our allies. The quickened pace of the NATO build-up after 1950 led to the establishment of numbered air forces under the direction of USAFE, which by 1957 had become the largest of the Air Force's oversea commands, with a strength of more than 70,000 officers and enlisted personnel.

Training. As of 1958 the Air Force is operating 45 technical schools at more than a dozen air bases in the United States. To train qualified pilots it operates 10 primary training stations, 8 basic and 9 advanced flying schools, and 1 pilot instructor school. Pilots receive 3 months of preflight instruction, 6 months of primary, 5 months of basic, and about 3 months of combat training. In 1957 pilots were being graduated at the rate of over 6,000 a year.

In nonflying skills the Air Force is preparing aircrew personnel for combat by conducting 35 major courses, which graduate about 18,000 students a year. These include navigators and observers, instructors, instrument specialists, aircraft controllers, special weapon students, and experts in survival techniques. Aircrew courses last from 6 weeks to 42 months. Aircrew training is given for all types of aircraft by highly experienced instructors, many of whom are combat veterans of World War II and Korea.

The cost of training a pilot averages about $150,000, and can go as high as $600,000 for training a jet bomber commander. For this reason the Air Force adopted, in 1957, a requirement for 5year instead of 3-year tours of duty for future pilots. It is also hopeful that the legislation based on the Cordiner Committee's recommendations, for selective pay increases geared to skill as a means of retaining highly technical personnel in the Armed Services, will

help to solve its personnel problems. Organization. The Department of the Air Force is headed by the Secretary of the Air Force, who has as assistants a Deputy Secretary and four Assistant Secretaries. The Chief of Staff of the Air Force, a senior career officer, is directly responsible to the Secretary for the efficiency of the Air Force, its state of preparedness for military operations, plans therefor, and their proper execution. His principal assistant is the Vice Chief of Staff. Hq. USAF also includes the Assistant Chiefs of Staff for Reserve Forces, Guided Missiles, and Intelligence; The Inspector General, the Surgeon General, and the Judge Advocate General. The Air Staff is composed of the Deputy Chiefs of Staff for Personnel, Operations, Materiel, Development, and Plans and Programs, and the Comptroller.

The Secretary of the Air Force, like the other Service Secretaries, no longer functions as Executive Agent for the Department of Defense for Joint or Specified Commands; instead, under P. L. 85-599, these commands operate directly under the Secretary of Defense through the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

Below headquarters level the Air Force is organized into fifteen major commands and two separate operating agencies, which provide the offensive, defensive, or supporting elements that make up an instrument of global airpower. They are listed below.

Air Defense Command (ADC). Hq., Ent AFB, Colorado Springs (Colo.). As part of the Continental Air Defense Command (a Joint Command under the Chiefs of Staff) its mission is to protect the United States from air attack. For further details see discussion under NORAD (above).

Strategic Air Command (SAC). Hq., Offutt AFB, Omaha (Neb.). It is the Air Force's long range nuclear jet striking force. It is now a Specified Command operating directly under the Secretary of Defense through the Joint Chiefs of Staff. It maintains bases in the United States and at many points throughout the world, and has direct control of four numbered air forces

(the Second, Eighth, Fifteenth and Sixteenth) three detached air divisions, and other units.

Tactical Air Command (TAC). Hq., Langley AFB (Va.). It is a mobile, nuclear, tactical striking force, capable of independent operations or of operations in support of ground troops. It helps to develop air-ground cooperation techniques and doctrine, cooperates with the Army in airborne and airlift training of Army troops, develops tactics of troop carrier aviation, and participates in joint training and maneuvers with the Army and Navy. TAC controls three numbered air forces, the Ninth, Twelfth, and Nineteenth.

Military Air Transport Service (MATS). Hq., Scott AFB (Ill.). It is a single manager operating agency for worldwide airlift services. It also includes the Air Weather Service, Air Rescue Service, Airways and Air Communications Service, and Air Photographic and Charting Service.

Continental Air Command (CONAC). Hq., Mitchell AFB (N. Y.). It is the Air Force's Reserve training organization.

Air Materiel Command (AMC). Hq., Wright-Patterson AFB, Dayton (Ohio). It is the logistical arm of the Air Force.

Air Research and Development Command (ARDC). Hq., Andrews AFB (Md.). Within its organization are ten major research, development, and test centers; the Office of Scientific Research; the ARDC European Office; the Armed Services Technical Information Agency; and the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division.

Air Training Command (ATC). Hq., Randolph AFB (Tex.). It performs most of the training missions of the U. S. Air Force.

U. S. A. F. Security Service. Hq., San Antonio (Tex.).

Air University. Hq., Maxwell AFB (Ala.). It is the educational and doctrinal center of the Air Force.

Headquarters Command. Hq., Bolling AFB (Washington, D. C.). It provides flying, administrative, and logistical service for Hq., USAF and other units in the Washington, D. C. area.

Air Force Accounting and Finance Center. Hq., Denver (Colo.).

U. S. A. F. Academy. Temporary hq.,

Lowry AFB (Colo.). Its mission is to educate, train, and motivate career officers for the Air Force, performing functions analogous to those of the U. S. Military Academy and the U. S. Naval Academy. The four-year course of study combines elements of both a liberal arts and an engineering education, and leads to the award of a baccalaureate degree, the aeronautical rating of navigator, and a commission in the Regular Air Force. The Academy opened at its new location near Colorado Springs, Colo., in the fall of 1958.

Alaskan Air Command (AAC). Hq., Elmendorf AFB (Alaska).

Caribbean

Air Command (CAirC). Hq., Albrook AFB, Balboa (CZ). It is part of the Caribbean Command, a Joint Command.

Pacific Air Forces (PACAF). Hq., Hickman AFB, Oahu (Hawaii). Under its jurisdiction are the Fifth and Thirteenth Air Forces. It is part of the Pacific Command, a Joint Command.

U. S. A. F. in Europe (USAFE). Hq.. Wiesbaden Air Base (Germany). It is part of the European Command, a Joint Command. Under its jurisdiction are the Third and Seventeenth Air Forces.

STRENGTH OF THE AIR FORCE. The following tabulation gives the military personnel strength of the Air Force for the period 1947-57

"(c) (1) Within the policy enunciated in section 2, the Secretary of Defense shall take appropriate steps (including the transfer, reassignment, abolition, and consolidation of functions) to provide in the Department of Defense for more effective, efficient, and economical administration and operation and to eliminate duplication. However, except as otherwise provided in this subsection, no function which has been established by law to be performed by the Department of Defense, or any officer or agency thereof, shall be substantially transferred, reassigned, abolished, or consolidated until the expiration of the first period of thirty calendar days of continuous session of the Congress following the date on which the Secretary of Defense reports the pertinent details of the action to be taken to the Armed Services Committees of the Senate and of the House of Representatives. If during such period a resolution is reported by either of the said committees stating that the proposed action with respect to the transfer, reassignment, abolition, or consolidation of any function should be rejected by the resolving House because (1) it contemplates the transfer, reassignment, abolition, or consolidation of a major combatant function now or hereafter assigned to the military services by section 3062 (b), 5012, 5013, or 8062 (c) of title 10 of the United States Code, and (2) if carried out it would in the judgment of the said resolving House tend to impair the defense of the United States, such transfer, reassignment, abolition, or consolidation shall take effect after the expiration of the first period of forty calendar days of continuous session of the Congress following the date on which such resolution is reported; but only if, between the date of such reporting in either House and the expiration of such fortyday period such resolution has not been passed by such House.

"(4) Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraph (1) hereof, the Secretary of Defense has the authority to assign, or reassign, to one or more departments or services, the development and operational use of new weapons or weapons systems.

“(5) Notwithstanding other provisions

of this subsection, if the President determines that it is necessary because of hostilities or imminent threat of hostilities, any function, including those assigned to the military services by sections 3062 (b), 5012, 5013, and 8062 (c) of title 10 of the United States Code, may be transferred, reassigned, or consolidated and subject to the determination of the President shall remain so transferred, reassigned, or consolidated until the termination of such hostilities or threat of hostilities.

"(6) Whenever the Secretary of Defense determines it will be advantageous to the Government in terms of effectiveness, economy, or efficiency, he shall provide for the carrying out of any supply or service activity common to more than one military department by a single agency or such other organizational entities as he deems appropriate. For the purposes of this paragraph, any supply or service activity common to more than one military department shall not be considered 'major combatant function' within the meaning of paragraph (1) hereof.

a

"(7) Each military department (the Department of the Navy to include naval aviation and the United States Marine Corps) shall be separately organized under its own Secretary and shall function under the direction, authority, and control of the Secretary of Defense. The Secretary of a military department shall be responsible to the Secretary of Defense for the operation of such department as well as its efficiency. Except as otherwise specifically provided by law, no Assistant Secretary of Defense shall have authority to issue orders to a military department unless (1) the Secretary of Defense has specifically delegated in writing to such an Assistant Secretary the authority to issue such orders with respect to a specific subject area, and (2) such orders are issued through the Secretary of such military department or his designee. In the implementation of this paragraph it shall be the duty of each such Secretary, his civilian assistants, and the military personnel in such department to cooperate fully with personnel of the Office of the Secretary of Defense in a continuous effort to achieve efficient administration of the