trapped the American force at Trenton. The overconfident British commander waited until the next day to spring his trap; and during that night, leaving campfires burning to deceive the British, Washington slipped his troops past the enemy flank. At dawn of 3 January 1777, the Americans attacked two British regiments, led by Col. Charles Mawhood, on the march near Princeton. The British were defeated, with losses estimated at between 400 and 600 in killed. wounded, and prisoners to an American loss of only 30 killed and wounded. Washington then went into winter quarters at Morristown, N. J., and the outgeneraled Cornwallis withdrew to New Brunswick.

British operations in 1777 fell into two parts: first, Howe's successful campaign to take Philadelphia, and second, Burgoyne's unsuccessful attempt to split the United States by driving from Canada down the Hudson to join forces with Clinton in New York. Lord George Germaine, head of the British Colonial Office in London, approved both plans but issued no instructions to insure coordination between commanders, and the commanders failed to cooperate with one another.

After fruitless maneuvers in New Jersey against Washington early in 1777, Howe sailed in mid-August with some 15,000 troops from New York to Head of Elk (now Elkton), Maryland. Washington blocked Howe's approach to Philadelphia at Chad's Ford on Brandywine Creek with about 11,000 men. Here, on 11 September 1777 in the Battle of Brandywine, the British executed a turning movement on American flank which almost succeeded in enveloping Washington's entire force; but troops under General Greene succeeded in staving off the flank attack, enabling Washington to withdraw his army in good order to Chester. American losses were about 1,000 killed, wounded, and prisoners. The British suffered less than 600 casualties.

the

After two weeks of maneuvering, the British entered Philadelphia unopposed on 26 September 1777, and Howe stationed about 9,000 of his troops in nearby Germantown. Washington promptly undertook a daring attack on this garrison, attempting to converge four

columns of troops on Germantown at dawn on 4 October 1777. Columns under Sullivan and Greene arrived a half-hour apart and began the attack, but two other columns, made up of militia, never appeared during the confused three-hour battle in an early morning fog. The British, with better cohesion and order, gained the day, but the Americans retreated in good order. American losses were 673 killed and wounded and a large number of prisoners. British losses were 533 killed and wounded.

After reducing American forts on the Delaware to secure his supply line, Howe retired to comfortable winter quarters in Philadelphia. Washington's less than 6,000 Continentals suffered out the winter at Valley Forge.

The British 1777 campaign in upper New York began in June when Burgoyne started down Lake Champlain with a force of about 7,500 men, mostly British and Hessian Regulars, accompanied by at least 400 Indians. At the same time a force of 700 Regulars and Tories under Col. Barry St. Leger, and 1,000 Indians, moved east from Fort Oswego to overrun American defenses in the Mohawk Valley and join Burgoyne at Albany. Opposing Burgoyne were 2,500 Continentals and militia under Maj. Gen. Arthur St. Clair at Ticonderoga and a force of 450 Continentals at Fort Stanwix in the upper Mohawk Valley. The northern army was under the overall command of Maj. Gen. Philip Schuyler, whose appointment had been opposed by New Englanders. It was not until after 19 August, when Schuyler was replaced by Maj. Gen. Horatio Gates, that the New England militia rallied in appreciable numbers.

Burgoyne's force arrived at Ticonderoga on 27 June 1777 and promptly forced the American garrison to evacuate the fort. The Americans retreated southward, harassing the British, who made slow progress with their large supply train in the rugged terrain. Washington sent a few troops north and local militia rallied to the cause. By the beginning of the Saratoga Campaign (30 July-17 October 1777) Schuyler had about 4,500 troops, but morale was low and desertion rife.

In western New York, St. Leger laid siege to Fort Stanwix on 2 August. A local militia force of 800 men led by Brig. Gen. Nicholas Herkimer, which set out to relieve the garrison. was ambushed by a large force of Indians and Tories at Oriskany village on 6 August 1777. The militia beat off the attack in a bloody encounter but had to abandon the relief attempt. Two weeks later Arnold arrived with a relief force of 950 Continentals sent by Schuyler. Arnold scattered the Indians without a fight by a clever ruse, and St. Leger was forced to abandon his campaign.

Burgoyne suffered another major setback in August, when he sent a foraging expedition of 650 men under Colonel Baum into Vermont. Brig. Gen. John Stark, with a force of about 2.000 militia, virtually destroyed Baum's command near Bennington, Vt., on 17 August 1777, and then soundly defeated a relief force of 600 men led by Colonel Breymann. Burgoyne not only failed to get needed supplies but also lost about a tenth of his command.

After waiting for supplies, Burgoyne crossed the Hudson at Saratoga (now Schuylerville, N. Y.) on 13-14 September with his dwindling army, determined to reach Albany before winter. The American force, now numbering about 7,000 men and commanded by Gates, was entrenched in a strong position on Bemis Heights athwart his route of advance. Burgoyne attacked on 19 September and a major engagement was fought at Freeman's Farm, forward of the main position. The Americans, led by General Arnold and Colonels Morgan and Dearborn, fought with distinction but yielded the field to the Britsh at nightfall. The British loss of about 600 men was double that of the Americans, however, and the latter still held Bemis Heights intact. Burgoyne remained inactive for about three weeks while General Clinton made a weak, abortive attempt to send relief forces north from New York City. Meanwhile Gates' army increased to a strength of about 10,000 men. Burgoyne's situation was growing desperate. On 7 October he made a final attempt to breach the American position, but was repulsed in a sharp fight known as the Battle of Bemis Heights. Two days later

he withdrew to a position near Saratoga. Militia soon worked around to the British rear and cut off escape routes to the north. Finally, on 17 October 1777, Burgoyne surrendered his army of about 5,000 men and valuable stores of military supplies. Gates' large army dissolved as the militiamen returned to their homes, and most of the Continentals returned to Washington.

Campaigns in the North After 1777. In the spring of 1778 Clinton relieved Howe. With France in the war and its powerful fleet posing a threat at sea, Clinton deemed it necessary to concentrate his troops on the coast where they would have easy communication with the British fleet. Therefore, on 18 June 1778, Clinton evacuated Philadelphia. marching toward New York with about 10,000 men. Washington followed with his army, which new enlistments and a call for militia had brought to a strength of about 13,500. It was a much improved army, the Continentals having profited at Valley Forge from a training program directed by Frederick W. von Steuben, a German volunteer who later became the Army's first Inspector General.

On 28 June 1778, an extremely hot day, the American force attacked Clinton's column as it moved out of Monmouth Courthouse (now Freehold, N. J.). Maj. Gen. Charles Lee, who led the initial attack in this Battle of Monmouth, directed his forces very ineptly and eventually, for no apparent good reason, ordered a retreat. At that point Washington relieved Lee and assumed direction of the battle, which raged until nightfall without either side giving up the field. Clinton slipped away during the night and successfully completed his movement to New York a few days later. The British reported losses of 65 killed, 155 wounded, and 64 missing at Monmouth, but the Americans claimed that they buried 249 British dead on the battlefield, American losses were 69 killed, 161 wounded, and 130 missing. Additionally, at least 59 British and 37 Americans died from fatigue and heat prostration.

Washington next planned a combined land and sea attack on New York in cooperation with Admiral D'Estaing's squadron, which arrived off the coast

on 8 July 1778 with 4,000 French Regulars aboard. Navigational difficulties caused the commanders to change the plan in favor of an attack on the British base at Newport, and General Sullivan's Rhode Island command was hastily reinforced. As the attack was being launched in mid-August, a British fleet interrupted French landing operations; and a great gale that severely damaged both fleets caused the French to abandon the operation altogether, leaving Sullivan to extricate himself from a difficult position. Washington had much difficulty in soothing the ruffled French and American feelings which resulted from the incident.

The Battle of Monmouth was the last general engagement in the North. After the fiasco at Newport, Washington set up a defense system around New York centering on West Point. Clinton captured unfinished installations at Verplanck's Point and Stony Point in the late spring of 1779 in an unsuccessful effort to draw Washington's troops into the open. General Wayne, in an exploit that earned him his sobriquet "Mad Anthony," made a successful night attack with a corps of light infantry on the British at Stony Point on 15 July 1779, but withdrew after failing to retake Verplanck's Point. The only other serious threat to Washington's defenses was in 1780, when Benedict Arnold, then commander at West Point, plotted to deliver this key post to the British. The treason was discovered in time to foil the plot, but Arnold escaped to become a British brigadier.

The only other continuing military activity in the North was against the Indians. General Sullivan, with a force of 2,500 Continentals, campaigned against the tribes in western Pennsylvania and New York in 1779, defeating a force of Tories and Indians at Newton (now Elmira), N. Y., on 26 August, but supply difficulties prevented him from reaching his objective at Niagara. The State of Virginia sponsored an expedition of 175 men led by Lt. Col. George Rogers Clark in the fall and winter of 1778-79, which overran all British posts in what is now Illinois and Indiana and administered a severe setback to marauding Indians in the Old Northwest.

Campaigns in the South After 1778. From 1778 until the end of the war, the main theater of the war was in the South. Tory strength was greater in that area, and the South was nearer the West Indies where the major portion of the British fleet had to stand guard against the French. The general strategy adopted by the King's ministers was to conquer the southern States one by one, and from bases there and in New York to strangle the northern ones.

The thinly populated State of Georgia was quickly overrun by the British in the winter of 1778-79. Maj. Gen. Benjamin Lincoln collected a force of about 3,500 Continentals and militia, but had to abandon an attempt to retake Georgia and hasten back to his main base at Charleston when a British force, led by Maj. Gen. Augustine Provost, laid siege to that city in May 1779.

In the fall of 1779 Admiral D'Estaing's fleet, carrying 6,000 French Regulars, arrived off the Georgia coast. On 12 September he debarked about 3,500 of the troops near Savannah. They were joined by Lincoln with 1,350 Americans, and the joint force laid siege to the well-fortified city with its garrison of about 2,500 British. Before the siege operations could be completed, Admiral D'Estaing decided to move his fleet to avoid autumn storms. Therefore, on 9 October 1779, the allies attempted to take the city by direct assault, but were vigorously repelled. The allies lost 244 killed and 584 wounded, the British only 40 killed and 63 wounded. The French then sailed away and the Americans returned to Charleston. Again a Franco-American attempt at cooperation ended with much bitterness on both sides.

With the withdrawal of the French fleet the British regained control of the sea along the coast, giving Clinton a mobility that Washington lacked. This enabled Clinton to push the campaign in the South with vigor in the spring of 1780, at which time he placed Charleston under siege with a force of about 14,000 men. Lincoln was cut off from escape either by land or by sea, and on 12 May 1780 was forced to surrender his force of 5,466 men-the greatest disaster suffered by the Ameri

cans during the entire Revolution. Col. Abraham Buford with 350 Virginians attempted to reinforce Lincoln, but his force was almost completely destroyed by Lt. Col. Banastre Tarleton's British cavalry at Waxhaws, N. C., on 29 May 1780, long after Charleston had fallen. Tarleton refused quarter to Buford's unit, which was the last remaining organized American force in the South at that time.

Clinton returned to New York with a third of his force, leaving Cornwallis with 8,000 men to follow up the Charleston victory. Cornwallis secured control of the coast, established a line of posts inland, and enlisted the support of numerous Tories. A ruthless civil war ensued as patriots under leaders such as Thomas Sumter, Andrew Pickens, and Francis Marion carried out guerrilla operations. In June 1780 Washington sent two understrength brigades to Hillsborough. N. C., which became the center of guerrilla resistance.

In July 1780 Congress named General Gates commander of the Southern De

partment. The hero of Saratoga promptly set out to make an ill-advised attack on a British post at Camden, South Carolina. Cornwallis just as promptly reinforced the post to a strength of about 2,200 men, mostly Regulars. As Gates approached Camden with about 4,100 troops (including only 900 Continentals), he detached Brig. Gen. Thomas Sumter with 400 men to raid British supply lines. On 16 August 1780 the main bodies of the two armies clashed near Camden. At the first onslaught of British Regulars the raw, untrained American militiamen fled and were ruthlessly pursued by Tarleton's cavalry. The Continentals under Maj. Gen. Johann De Kalb stood their ground, but were surrounded and virtually annihilated. At least 650 Continentals were killed or captured, and the overall loss may have been as high as 2,000, but the losses of the dispersed militia units were impossible to estimate accurately. The British lost 68 killed and 227 wounded. Sumter's raiding force was practically wiped out at Fishing Creek on 18 August by Tarleton's cavalry. Thus Gates' campaign ended in complete defeat.

After Camden, with Clinton's reluctant consent, Cornwallis invaded North Carolina. As Cornwallis' main body moved north, Maj. Patrick Ferguson, a successful organizer of Tories, moved with a force of about 1,000 "American Volunteers" toward the North Carolina back country to strengthen Tory resistance, after which he planned to join Cornwallis at Charlotte. Patriot frontiersmen, alarmed at Ferguson's move, assembled a force of about 1,400 militiamen and brought the Tory force to bay at King's Mountain, S. C., on 7 October 1780. The patroits completely destroyed the Tories, who lost 157 killed, 163 wounded so badly that they were left on the field, and 698 captured. The patriots lost only 28 killed and 62 wounded. Among the leaders of the victorious militia were Cols. John Seiver, Isaac Shelby, William Campbell, and Benjamin Cleveland. As a result of the defeat, Cornwallis was forced to retreat to South Carolina.

Early in December 1780 Greene replaced Gates at Charlotte as commander in the South, and Brig. Gen. Daniel Morgan and Lt. Col. Henry Lee went South to assist him. Greene divided his troops, sending Morgan with a force of about 1,000 men, largely militia, west across the Catawba into South Carolina. Cornwallis, in an all-out effort, again invaded North Carolina early in 1781 and sent Tarleton with a force of about 1,100 men, mostly regulars, to seek out and crush Morgan. Tarleton caught up with Morgan at the Cowpens, near King's Mountain, on 17 January 1781. Displaying brilliant generalship, Morgan inflicted a crushing defeat on the British force. Tarleton escaped with a few cavalrymen, but he lost 100 killed and 829 captured (including 229 wounded) while Morgan lost only 12 killed and 60 wounded.

Despite Tarleton's defeat, Cornwallis doggedly continued his campaign to take North Carolina. Greene adopted the tactic of retreating northward to Virginia, keeping far enough ahead of the pursuing Cornwallis to avoid battle but near enough to tempt continued pursuit. In this way Greene gradually exhausted the British while steadily increasing his own strength. When the American force crossed into southern

Virginia late in 1780, the dwindling British army of about 1,900 men drew back to Hillsborough. Early in 1781 Greene moved back into North Carolina with about 4,500 men (including 1,500 Continentals) and fought a major engagement at Guilford Court House on 15 March. The British won the field, largely because of their superiority in artillery, but lost about a fourth of their number-93 killed and 439 wounded-while the Americans, who had retired in good order, lost only 78 killed and 183 wounded.

Cornwallis was forced to withdraw to Wilmington on the coast. In the months that followed, Greene's army, with partizan help, gradually drove the British out of the Carolinas and Georgia. By October 1781 the British held only Savannah and Charleston. The only major engagements during this period were at Hobkirk's Hill on 25 April and at Eutaw Springs on 8 September. Both battles were indecisive but weakened the British.

Meanwhile, early in 1781, Clinton had taken steps to establish a base in Virginia. Benedict Arnold landed at Chesapeake Bay with 1,600 British troops in January 1781 and raided up the James River to Richmond. Washington attempted to trap Arnold, sending Maj. Gen. Marquis de Lafayette to Virginia with 1,200 Continentals, but the British retained control of the sea approaches and sent 2,600 more men to Virginia under Maj. Gen. William Phillips. In May 1781 Cornwallis arrived with the remnants of his army and took over command of all troops in Virginia, now numbering about 7,000 men. At Clinton's insistence, Cornwallis eventually established a base on Chesapeake Bay at Yorktown.

Washington's northern army numbered about 10,000 men, including 4,000 French who had been placed under his command by Lt. Gen. Jean B. de Rochambeau. Learning that Adm. Francois de Grasse would arrive at Chesapeake Bay with a French fleet late in August, Washington made a rapid, secret movement with most of his troops to Virginia, beginning on 21 August. Concurrently a squadron of 8 ships of the line under Adm. Count de Barras put to sea from Newport to

reinforce de Grasse.

The French fleet, 24 ships of the line, arrived off Yorktown on 30 August 1781 and debarked 3,000 French Regulars to reinforce Lafayette, whose troops had been keeping a watchful eye on Cornwallis at Yorktown. On 5 September, Adm. Thomas Graves, with 19 British ships of the line, arrived off Hampton Roads and met the French fleet in an indecisive engagement off the Virginia capes. While the fleets maneuvered at sea, Washington brought his army down Chesapeake Bay and landed near Yorktown. With the arrival of Barras to strengthen the French fleet, Graves returned to New York to refit, and the French returned to Chesapeake Bay. On shore, the allied army numbered about 15,000 men-8,845 Americans and 7,800 French Regulars. Siege operations began on 6 October, and on 19 October 1781 Cornwallis surrendered his entire command of 7,247 military and 840 naval personnel. During this Yorktown Campaign (28 September-19 October 1781) the British lost 156 killed and 326 wounded; the Americans, 20 killed and 56 wounded; and the French, 52 killed and 134 wounded.

Cornwallis' defeat resulted in the overthrow of the British Cabinet, and the new government was disposed to end the war. Both Greene and Washington maintained their armies near Charleston and New York for nearly two more years, but the only fighting

Naval War. The small Continental Navy and many American privateers made an impressive showing during the war. The United States Navy had its beginning on 13 October 1775, when Congress voted to fit out a number of ships. In the aggregate it eventually comprized about 60 vessels, which operated against enemy merchantmen and British blockaders, carried diplomats on many missions, and transported essential cargo. Of numerous sea engagements, perhaps the most famous took place on 23 September 1779 when the Bonhomme Richard, commanded by John Paul Jones, defeated the British Serapis.

CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. A preliminary treaty of peace between the