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after running a gantlet of fire had arrived, three days later, at New Orleans, from which Confederate troops had been withdrawn. On 1 May 1862 Union troops under Maj. Gen. Benjamin F. Butler arrived and occupied the city.

For the remainder of 1862 little was accomplished by either side in the Western Theater. On 3-4 October a Confederate force under Brig. Gen. Earl Van Dorn attempted to drive a Union force under Brig. Gen. William S. Rosecrans out of Corinth, but retired after suffering heavy losses. At Perryville, Ky., another bloody encounter occurred on 8 October, when Buell's force pushed back a Confederate drive to the north led by Gen. Braxton Bragg. In November, Bragg moved north again with a force of 35,000 men, this time to Murfreesboro, Tenn. (Stone's River) (16 December 1862-4 January 1863). Rosecrans advanced to meet him with about 44,800 Federals, and the forces clashed at Stone's River on the last day of the year. Rosecrans was forced to break off the engagement on the second day of fighting and fall back to Tullahoma, having suffered losses of 1,677 killed, 7,543 wounded, and 3,686 missing. The Confederates lost 1,294 killed, 7,945 wounded, and about 2,500 missing.

Not all Union objectives had been secured in the western theater during 1862, and at Murfreesboro the Confederates partly undid earlier Union victories; but Union gains had been impressive. At the end of the year the only areas on the Mississippi held by the Confederates were in the vicinity of Vicksburg and Port Hudson.

Meanwhile, in the Eastern Theater during 1862 there had been a long series of complex, closely interrelated operations. Union plans aimed at the capture of Richmond, and Lincoln, with some misgivings, approved McClellan's plan to move the attacking force from Washington to Fort Monroe by sea and then to attack overland up the peninsula formed by the York and James Rivers. McClellan expected to cover the 70 miles from Monroe to Richmond before J. E. Johnston, who had moved his army from Manassas to Fredericksburg, could

intervene. This plan took advantage of Federal control of the sea, and the battle at Hampton Roads on 9 March 1862, in which the Union Monitor successfully neutralized the Confederate Merrimac, was an important preliminary to the campaign. On 11 March Lincoln relieved McClellan as General in Chief, leaving him free to devote his entire attention to planning and executing the drive on Richmond. Early in April, as this was getting under way, Lincoln became concerned about the security of the capital. He directed Stanton to retain McDowell's corps (some 30,000 men) which was awaiting embarkation at Alexandria to join McClellan.

Recognizing the threat to Richmond, Confederate authorities staged a bold diversion that resulted in the Valley Campaign (15 May-17 June 1862). While Johnston hurried his army to the peninsula to stop McClellan, Jackson with about 10,000 Confederates became active in the Shenandoah Valley. On 23 March he attacked a Federal division at Kernstown and suffered defeat; but he won a strategic victory, for, by posing a threat to Harper's Ferry and Washington, he diverted forces from McClellan. Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks' Department of the Shenandoah, which had the dual mission of protecting Washington and of bottling up and destroying Jackson, eventually had a total strength about three times that of his opponent. However, Jackson maneuvered with great skill, made two and a half round trips up and down the valley in about six weeks, and defeated the superior Union forces in detail. By 9 June 1862, Jackson had fought and won five battles-McDowell, Front Royal, Winchester, Cross Keys, and Port Republic.

The Army of the Potomac began sailing from Alexandria to Fort Monroe on 17 March 1862. This marked the beginning of the Peninsula Campaign (17 March2 August 1862) in which perhaps as many as 155,000 Federals and 95,500 Confederates eventually became involved, although not that many were present at any one time.

McClellan began advancing from Fort Monroe early in April, but stopped for

Inclusive dates as given in AR 220-105. Jackson's activities in the Shenandoah Valley actually began in March 1862.

a month to besiege a much inferior Confederate force under Maj. Gen. John B. Magruder at Yorktown. During the siege Johnston had time to join Magruder with his entire force. McClellan planned a major assault on 5 May, but on 3 May Johnston began withdrawing up the peninsula. McClellan pursued, and the Confederate rear guard under Maj. Gen. James Longstreet fought a successful delaying action at Williamsburg on 5 May which developed into a major engagement, resulting in 1,866 Federal and 1,570 Confederate casualties. McClellan continued his pursuit in leisurely fashion, established his main base at White House, and toward the end of the month pushed two corps southwest across the Chickahominy River toward Richmond. His remaining three corps stayed north of the river. McClellan expected help from the force under McDowell which had meanwhile moved to Fredericksburg, but Jackson's valley campaign drained away half of McDowell's troops, and McClellan received only two divisions of reinforcements from this source during the campaign.

A heavy rain on 30 May flooded the Chickahominy, washing out bridges and rendering the stream unfordable. Recognizing this as an opportunity to defeat the Union force in detail, Johnston attacked the isolated Federals south of the stream near Fair Oaks on 31 May 1862. The Federals, after suffering initial reverses, were finally able to repel the attack. Each side committed some 41.000 men during the two-day engagement, the Federals losing 790 killed and 4,384 wounded, the Confederates 980 killed and 5,729 wounded.

Johnston was wounded at Fair Oaks and was replaced by Gen. Robert E. Lee. Jackson now moved quickly and with complete secrecy to Richmond, while Lee pulled back closer to Richmond and built fortifications. Late in June Lee struck hard on McClellan's right (north) flank and succeeded in cutting the Federal line of communications to the main base at White House. McClellan therefore shifted his base to Harrison's Landing on the south side of the peninsula, fighting all the way, and on 1 July was finally able to mass his forces, establish a strong defensive position, and repel Lee's attacks. It was a hard

fought, complex operation known as the Seven Days' Battles (25 June-1 July 1862) and included major engagements at Mechanicsville (26 June), Gaines' Mill or First Cold Harbor (27 June). Savage Station (29 June), Frayer's Farm or Glendale (30 June), and Malvern Hill (1 July). On 3 July Lee broke contact and returned his troops to the lines at Richmond. There was no more fighting. Casualties had been heavy on the peninsula. Federal losses in killed. wounded, and missing totaled 15,849; Confederate losses were 20,614.

In June 1862, during the Peninsula Campaign, Lincoln consolidated the Union forces in the Shenandoah Valley and other parts of western Virginia— some 45,000 men-as the Army of Virginia, assigning the command to Pope. After Jackson moved to Richmond. Pope was given the mission of marching down the Shenandoah Valley and then east against Richmond to relieve McClellan. On 11 July 1862 Lincoln appointed Halleck as General in Chief. By that time Pope's army was in western Virginia, and McClellan's Army of the Potomac, 100,000 strong, was at Harrison's Landing, with Lee in between. Neither Halleck nor Lincoln liked the disposition of the forces, and on 3 August McClellan was ordered to join Pope by way of Aquia Creek on the Potomac, a move that got under way about two weeks later.

Meanwhile Pope's threatening position had caused Lee to detach a force of 24,000 men under Jackson, who marched northwest out of Richmond on 13 July to strike advance elements of Pope's army. He met and defeated the Federal II Corps, Banks commanding, at Cedar Mountain on 9 August, but did not pursue because Pope's main body was nearby. Lee followed Jackson out of Richmond with the remainder of the Army of Northern Virginia, intending to outflank and cut off Pope before he and McClellan could join forces.

Lee conducted a series of feints and maneuvers which caused Pope to withdraw to the north bank of the Rappahannock. On 25 August Lee sent Jackson, followed the next day by Longstreet's divisions, on a wide turning movement around the Federal right flank. Jackson came in behind Pope on

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26 August at Manassas, where he destroyed Federal military stores. Pope immediately moved northeast and clashed with Jackson at Groveton on 28 August. Jackson then took up a defensive position in the general vicinity of the Battle of Bull Run. On 29 August, as McClellan's troops began to arrive on the scene, Pope moved to crush Jackson. A two-day engagement ensued, during which Longstreet's divisions arrived and turned the tide against the Federals. Pope retired to Washington, fighting off an enveloping Confederate force at Chantilly on the way. This brought to a close the Manassas Campaign, or Second Bull Run (7 August2 September 1862). For the Confederates it was the Second Manassas Campaign. During the period 27 August-2 September a total of 48,527 Confederates had engaged 75,696 Federals; the Confederates had lost 1,481 killed, 7,627 wounded, and 89 missing; and the Federals 1,724 killed, 8,372 wounded, and 5,958 missing. Following the campaign Halleck dissolved the Army of Virginia and gave McClellan the command of all forces around the capital. Pope was sent to a command in Minnesota.

Lee followed his victory with an immediate attempt to invade the North. By 4 September he had reached Frederick, Md., with about 55,000 men. Lee then detached Jackson's column to guard against interference from a Union garrison at Harper's Ferry, and moved with the remainder of his command across the Blue Ridge to Hagerstown. Meanwhile McClellan had moved north with 90,000 men, arriving at Frederick on 12 September. Learning of Lee's plans he set off in pursuit, hoping to defeat the Confederate forces in detail as they passed through mountain gaps. However, Lee was able to concentrate his troops (including Jackson's forces, which arrived late during the ensuing battle) at Sharpsburg on Antietam Creek. McClellan attacked repeatedly on 17 August, but was unable to break the Confederate line. Of 75,316 Federals engaged, 2,108 were killed, 9,549 wounded, and 753 missing; of the 51,844 Confederates engaged, 2,700 were killed, 9,024 wounded, and about 2,000 missing. The next day Lee began an unmolested withdrawal to Virginia. The

series of maneuvers ending at Sharpsburg is known as the Antietam Campaign (3-17 September 1862).

Upon his return to Virginia, Lee divided his army into two corps and took up positions at Culpeper and Winchester. By November McClellan was at Warrenton, making ready to attack Culpeper; but on 7 November Maj. Gen. Ambrose E. Burnside replaced McClellan as commander of the Army of the Potomac, now numbering about 120,000 men. Burnside decided to make a drive across the Rappahannock at Fredericksburg toward Richmond, a move that would interpose the Army of the Potomac between Lee and Richmond. Success depended upon speed. Burnside had to seize the high ground southwest of Fredericksburg before Lee could get there.

The Fredericksburg Campaign (9 November-15 December 1862) was doomed from the start because of the failure to coordinate the time of arrival of ponton trains at the Rappahannock with the arrival of the troops. Union forces leading the drive reached Falmouth, opposite Fredericksburg, on 17 November, but it was 25 November before the ponton trains came up. By the time that Burnside was ready to attack, Lee had 78,500 Confederates dug in and waiting on the high ground that had been the Federal's first objective. Burnside nevertheless attacked across the river on 11-12 December, and on the 13th staged a series of massive assaults on the Confederate positions. The Federals were repulsed with heavy casualties. Burnside was dissuaded by his corps commanders from renewing the attack, and his troops were withdrawn across the river on the night of 15-16 December. Lee did not follow. Of nearly 114,000 Federals engaged at Fredericksburg, 1,284 were killed, 9,600 wounded, and 1,769 missing; of some 72,500 Confederates engaged, 595 were killed, 4,061 wounded, and 653 missing.

Campaigns of 1863. As in 1862, major

operations began in the Western Theater. The principal objective there was to gain control of the Mississippi. To do that it was necessary to reduce Vicksburg and Port Hudson. Futile attempts were made to take Vicksburg in 1862 and early in 1863, and several plans

were made and discarded before Grant was given full responsibility for the mission, Grant started the campaign with 45,000 men organized into three corps. Late in the campaign he received two more corps, bringing his total strength to 75,000.

Grant's bold plan for the conduct of the Vicksburg Campaign (29 March-4 July 1863) was carried out to perfection. While a corps under Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman demonstrated north of Vicksburg late in March, the other two corps, under Maj. Gens. John A. McClernand and James B. McPherson, made a wide swing southward on the west side of the Mississippi and then back to the river at Bruinsburg, about 30 miles below Vicksburg. Sherman's corps followed the same route, joining Grant early in May. Meanwhile, on the night of 16-17 April, Flag Officer David D. Porter sailed his river fleet down the river, survived a heavy bombardment as he passed Vicksburg, and, beginning on 30 April, ferried Grant's troops across the river.

Vicksburg was defended by some 30,000 Confederates under Lt. Gen. John C. Pemberton. Other Confederate forces under J. E. Johnston were concentrated in the vicinity of Jackson, Miss., 40 miles east of Vicksburg. Grant's plan was to interpose his army between Pemberton and Johnston and then to fend off Johnston while taking Vicksburg. Therefore he fought his way northeastward, took Raymond on 12 May, and drove Confederate forces out of Jackson on 14 May. Then, while Sherman's corps contained Johnston, Grant advanced on Vicksburg, winning engagements at Champion's Hill (16 May) and Black River Bridge (17 May), and drove Pemberton's forces into the city. Assaults on 18 and 22 May failed to breach Vicksburg's defenses. The Federals thereupon settled down to a siege, which ended with Pemberton's surrender on 4 July 1863. Pemberton's 29,396 officers and enlisted men were granted parole under the terms of the surrender. Federal losses during the campaign were about 3,500; Confederate losses were more than 8,000 killed, wounded, and missing.

While Grant was laying siege to Vicksburg, a 15,000-man force under

Banks (who had replaced Butler) moved north from New Orleans and attacked Port Hudson, which fell on 8 July 1863. The whole Mississippi River thereby came under Union control and the Confederacy had been cut in two.

Much more decisive results were achieved in the Western than in the Eastern Theater by Union forces during the first part of 1863. In the East, during this period, Federal operations were directed by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, who replaced Burnside as commander of the Army of the Potomac on 25 January. Hooker effected some reorganization, and by late April was ready to assume the offensive with about 134,000 men. Hooker's objective was to destroy Lee's army, about 60,000 strong, which was still holding Fredericksburg. To accomplish this he planned a double envelopment which would place strong Union forces on each of Lee's flanks. The Chancellorsville Campaign (27 April-6 May 1863) began, as planned, with the movement of five corps under Hooker up the Rappahannock and across the river to Chancellorsville, while two corps under Maj. Gen. John Sedgwick crossed below Fredericksburg. Meanwhile Union cavalry made a diversionary raid in Lee's rear. Lee quickly became aware of Hooker's intentions, and on 1 May boldly launched an attack toward Chancellorsville, leaving a small force to defend Fredericksburg. In a brilliant display of generalship, Lee outflanked Hooker's force and kept it on the defensive. He also repulsed Sedgwick, who had taken Fredericksburg on 3 May and had advanced west, only to be driven northward across the Rappahannock on 5 May. Lee then turned his full attention to Chancellorsville, but Hooker withdrew his forces across the Rappahannock on 6 May before the Confederates could launch an assault. Federal casualties were 1,575 killed, 9,594 wounded, and 5,676 missing; Confederate casualties were 1,665 killed, 9,081 wounded, and 2,018 missing. Among the Confederate losses was Stonewall Jackson, who was mortally wounded on 2 May.

Encouraged by the victory at Chancellorsville, Confederate authorities decided to attempt another invasion of the North. In early June Lee began moving

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