his units up the Shenandoah and Cumberland Valleys into Pennsylvania, where he was forced by the exigencies of scanty supply to disperse his army over a broad area. Hooker had become aware of Lee's intentions by mid-June, and had promptly started north with his army, crossing the Potomac near Leesburg on 25-26 June. When Lee learned of this he ordered his army to concentrate at once between Cashtown and Gettysburg.

As the Army of the Potomac moved north, Hooker became embroiled in an argument with Halleck, and was replaced by Maj. Gen. George G. Meade on 28 June. Two days later, fringe elements of Lee's and Meade's armies clashed at Gettysburg. As a result both armies, still widely dispersed, began to converge on the little Pennsylvania

town.

At the beginning of the Gettysburg Campaign (29 June-3 July 1863), the Army of the Potomac numbered 115,256 men, with 362 guns. The Army of Northern Virginia, late in May, had a strength of 76,224 men and 272 guns. The numbers committed to action at Gettysburg probably did not exceed 90,000 Federals and 75,000 Confederates. Serious fighting began on 1 July as Federal troops poured into the Gettysburg area, and continued throughout 2 July without a decision. On the afternoon of 3 July, Lee made a massive frontal assault with 15,000 men under Maj. Gen. George E. Pickett, against a mile-long section of Meade's position. Artillery and rifle fire from prepared positions broke up the brave but suicidal charge before it reached the Union lines, except in one place where the breach was quickly closed. The survivors of Pickett's shattered command retired, and the fighting was over except for an ill-advised Union cavalry charge which the Confederates easily repelled. On 4 July Lee began withdrawing to Virginia. Union losses at Gettysburg were 3,155 killed, 14,529 wounded, and 5,365 missing (including prisoners); Confederate losses were 3,903 killed, 18,735 wounded, and 5,425 missing.

After Gettysburg and Vicksburg the center of strategic interest shifted to Tennessee, where Chattanooga, an important communications center, became the primary objective of Federal oper

ations. Preliminary moves to take Chattanooga resulted in the Chickamauga Campaign (16 August-22 September 1863).

The Chattanooga area was defended by Bragg's Army of Tennessee. In midSeptember Longstreet joined Bragg with 10,000 men and 6 field artillery brigades, bringing the force to a total strength of about 62,000 men. Opposing Bragg was the Army of the Cumberland, commanded by Rosecrans and numbering about 65,000.

In July 1863 Rosecrans moved his army southeast out of Murfreesboro. His intention was to swing south of Chattanooga, in order to cut off Bragg's southern escape route, and then to attack. By 4 September Rosecrans had crossed the Tennessee River near Stevenson, Ala., and was moving northeast toward Chattanooga. Bragg, learning of his approach, promptly moved his own force out of the city, making a stand along Chickamauga Creek near Lafayette, Ga., about 15 miles south of Chattanooga. Rosecrans changed his direction of march to intercept Bragg. Moving across mountainous terrain, Rosecrans made contact sooner than expected and had difficulty in concentrating his troops. Bragg waited until 18 September, when Longstreet's force began to arrive, before launching his attack across Chickamauga Creek. The battle raged throughout 19 September without decision. On the next day a Confederate assault pierced the Union line and drove about a third of the Federals, Rosecrans among them, northward in retreat. Rosecrans conceded the victory and moved on into Chattanooga, but the remaining Federals, under Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas, stood fast under repeated attacks. Thomas retired his force from the field that night, and the next day joined Rosecrans in Chattanooga. Federal losses in the three-day battle were 1,657 killed, 9,756 wounded, and 4,757 missing. Confederate losses were 2,312 killed, 14,674 wounded, and 1,468 missing.

Bragg took up positions south and east of Chattanooga on Lookout Mountain and along Missionary Ridge. He thereby turned the tables on Rosecrans, who found himself shut up in Chattanooga and cut off from direct supply by

rail. Washington authorities moved to help Rosecrans, dispatching two corps under Hooker (about 20,000 men) from the Army of the Potomac by rail at the end of September. Hooker's troops eventually attacked Confederate forces southwest of Chattanooga, thereby opening up the rail supply line to the city late in October. During that month Grant took overall charge of the operation in his capacity as newly appointed commander of the Military Division of the Mississippi. Sherman took over Grant's Army of the Tennessee and Thomas replaced Rosecrans in Chattanooga.

Early in November Bragg sent Longstreet's force after Burnside in eastern Tennessee. This reduced the Confederate force besieging Chattanooga to little more than 40,000 men. At about the same time Sherman arrived in Chattanooga. bringing Grant's strength there to about 60,000 men. Grant took the offensive in the latter part of November, in what is known as the Chattanooga Campaign (23-27 November 1863). Hooker's force took Lookout Mountain on 24 November, and Thomas' and Sherman's troops took Missionary Ridge the next day. Bragg was forced to retreat south, one of his divisions skillfully halting Grant's attempted pursuit. During the period 2325 November 1863, Federal losses were 753 killed, 4,722 wounded, and 349 missing; Confederate losses were 361 killed, 2,160 wounded, and 4,165 missing.

Shortly after Bragg's defeat Longstreet returned to Virginia, and practically all of Tennessee was cleared for the Union. With Chattanooga available as a base of operations, the way was open for an invasion of the lower South. There was a lull in major operations until the spring of 1864.

Campaigns of 1864-1865. In February of 1864 Lincoln replaced Halleck as General-in-Chief with Grant, who was promoted to the rank of lieutenant general. Grant established his headquarters in the Eastern Theater, but elected to accompany the troops in the drive south against Lee. Halleck remained in Washington in a new post, that of Army Chief of Staff.

The broad outline of Grant's strategic plan for winning the war was to destroy Lee's Army of Northern Virginia with Meade's Army of the Potomac, while

Butler moved his Army of the James up the peninsula to menace Richmond and to cut Lee's supply lines; to divert Confederate forces away from Lee by conducting raids with Maj. Gen. Franz Sigel's force in the Shenandoah Valley; to destroy the Army of Tennessee, and damage the Confederacy's war-making resources, by a wide, swinging movement through the South with the western armies under Sherman; and to take Mobile, Ala., with Banks' Gulf Department forces while Farragut's fleet took Mobile Bay. In general this plan governed operations until the end of the war. Only two minor parts failed completely: the ground drive on Mobile by Banks never got started, and Butler failed to accomplish his mission.

At the beginning of the Wilderness Campaign (4-7 May 1864) the Army of the Potomac under Meade consisted of three infantry corps of about 25,000 men each and a cavalry corps. Burnside's corps of 20,000 men, which Grant kept directly under his command for a time before assigning it to Meade, brought the striking force to a total strength of more than 100,000 effectives. Butler's Army of the James on the peninsula numbered about 25,000. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, about 70,000 strong, was organized into three infantry corps under Generals Longstreet, Ewell, and Hill, and a cavalry corps under Maj. Gen. J. E. B. Stuart. At the beginning of May 1864 Meade's forces were located generally north of the Rapidan River east of Culpeper, and Lee's were in the wilderness area west and south of Chancellorsville.

Meade's forces (including Burnside's corps) moved south across the Rapidan on 4 May 1864 in an attempt to slip past Lee's right (east) flank and then envelop his army. As the Federals halted briefly near Chancellorsville, Lee struck hard at Meade's right (west) flank. Grant and Meade swung the troops into line and fought back. The battle raged during 5 and 6 May without decisive result, but Grant was worsted in that his initial attempt to envelop Lee had been foiled. Of 101,895 Federals engaged, 2,246 were killed, 12.037 wounded, and 3,383 were missing. Losses of the 61,025 Confederates engaged are estimated at about 7,750 killed

and wounded.

Grant persisted in his attempt to get around Lee's flank. On 7 May he moved south toward Spotsylvania, but Lee got there first and quickly built fortifications. The Army of the Potomac and Burnside's corps struck repeatedly at these positions at Spotsylvania (8-21 May 1864) but were repulsed with heavy losses. On 20 May Grant sideslipped south in another effort to envelop his opponent. Lee skillfully avoided the trap and retired to the North Anna River, where he established a defensive position that Grant considered too strong to attack. In the two major attacks at Spotsylvania (10 and 12 May), during which about 66,000 Federals were committed, Federal losses were 10,119 killed and wounded and about 800 missing. No accurate report exists on the number of Confederates engaged or their losses, but estimates place the losses betwen 9,000 and 10,000, including about 4,000 taken prisoner.

Early in May, Stuart's cavalry had effectively harassed and slowed Grant's movements. In order to reduce this threat Maj. Gen. Philip H. Sheridan took off toward Richmond in mid-May on a 16-day raid that drew Stuart after him. Sheridan fought several running engagements, culminating in a victory at Yellow Tavern (where Stuart was killed) which ended forever the offensive power of Lee's cavalry.

Meanwhile Butler had marched the Army of the James up the peninsula, but had been outmaneuvered and bottled up at Bermuda Hundred by Beauregard. Therefore Lee was able to fall back to the Richmond defenses, where he placed his right flank on the Chickahominy and his center at Cold Harbor. Grant's forces took position along six to eight miles of front facing the entrenched Confederates. On 3 June Grant launched a heavy assault at Cold Harbor (22 May-3 June 1864). The Federals were repulsed with a loss of some 12,000 Ikilled and wounded.

Up to and including Cold Harbor, Grant's 1864 eastern campaign had resulted in some 25,000 to 30,000 casualties for the South and from 55,000 to 60,000 for the North. Grant had not yet achieved a single major objective in

the East. But he had dealt a nearly fatal blow to the South, which was running out of men; whereas the North, though suffering even greater losses, could still draw upon a large reservoir of manpower.

Since Lee was firmly entrenched in Richmond, Grant decided to starve him into the open by taking Petersburg (4 June 1864-2 April 1865), through which ran all the railways and main roads connecting Richmond with the south. In a move that took Lee by surprise, Grant suddenly crossed the James River below Richmond with about 64,000 Federals on 14 June. The next day his leading elements reached Petersburg. The city was lightly held, but the Federals unaccountably delayed their attack and Lee was able to move into Petersburg in force. A Federal assault on 18 June failed to pierce the Confederate defenses and cost Grant 8,150 casualties. At the end of July a great mine tunneled under the Confederate works was exploded. However, the succeeding infantry assault at "The Crater" failed to exploit the huge breach in the line and Grant suffered another 4,000 casualties. Grant thereupon undertook siege operations which lasted until April 1865.

After Lee had firmly established his position at Petersburg, he sent Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early with one corps on a raiding expedition up the Shenandoah Valley to ease pressure that had been exerted from that direction. Early, skillfully eluding Federal opposition, made a rapid drive north and then east that carried him to the northern outskirts of Washington on 11 July. Here he skirmished briskly in the vicinity of Fort Stevens. On that same day a body of troops hastily dispatched by Grant arrived on the scene, and Early discreetly made off. In order to remedy defects in the command structure that in Grant's opinion had permitted Early to elude superior forces, Grant formed one command (where there had been four) embracing Washington, western Maryland, and the Shenandoah, and put Sheridan in command with orders to destroy Early. Sheridan spent the next four months in the Shenandoah Campaign (7 August-28 November 1864), defeating Early at Winchester and Fisher's

Hill in September and finally shattering his forces at Cedar Creek on 19 October. Sheridan then devastated the Shenandoah Valley, in order to stop raids and to destroy sources of food for Lee's army.

In the Western Theater during 1864 the principal operation was the Atlanta Campaign (7 May-2 September 1864), followed by Sherman's "March to the Sea." Sherman moved south out of Chattanooga on 4 May 1864 at the head of three armies and four divisions of cavalry, a total of about 105,000 men. Opposing him was Johnston with two corps of the Army of Tennessee, Lt. Gen. Leonidas Polk's Army of Mississippi, and Maj. Gen. Joseph W. Wheeler's cavalry, a total of about 65,000 men. Johnston adopted defensive tactics, fighting delaying actions and constantly forcing Sherman to halt, deploy, and maneuver. In 74 days Sherman was able to advance only 100 miles toward Atlanta. On 27 June Sherman attempted a direct assault against prepared positions at Kenesaw Mountain, but was repulsed, suffering 2,000 casualties to only 270 for the Confederates. He then returned to a war of maneuver, forcing Johnston back to positions in front of Atlanta. President Davis, dissatisfied with Johnston's delaying tactics, now replaced him with Maj. Gen. John B. Hood, a more impetuous commander. On 20 July, and again on 22 July, Hood led attacks outside his fortifications, but was beaten back both times with heavy losses. Having dissipated his striking power, Hood gave up on the last day of August, moving his force out of Atlanta on a roundabout route to northwest Alabama. Sherman marched his army into Atlanta unopposed on 1-2 September 1864. During the four-month campaign the losses in killed and wounded had been more than 26,000 for the Federals and 23,000 for the Confederates.

Sherman sent 30,000 men to General Thomas at Nashville on the chance that Hood would attempt to invade Tennessee. He then proposed to take four corps of about 62,000 men and march to the coast, laying waste all Confederate resources in his path. Lincoln and Grant hesitantly agreed to the plan. On 12 November 1864 Sherman marched out of the ruins of Atlanta, cut a 60-mile

wide path of destruction through the heart of the South, and on 10 December arrived before Savannah, which yielded to the Federals eleven days later. Late in January 1865 Sherman's force began moving north to join the Army of the Potomac. It easily brushed aside what opposition Johnston could offer. When the war ended it was approaching Raleigh, N. C.

The force of 30,000 men which Sherman had dispatched to Nashville in November (two infantry corps under Maj. Gen. John M. Schofield) was attacked on 30 November at Franklin, Tenn., (17-30 November 1864) by Hood's force of 30,000 Confederates, who had invaded Tennessee as anticipated by Sherman. Schofield beat off Hood in a short, furious engagement. Federal losses were 189 killed, 1,033 wounded, and 1,104 missing; Confederate losses were 1,750 killed, 3,800 wounded, and 702 missing. The next day Schofield moved on to Nashville, where his arrival brought the Federal force under Thomas to a total strength of about 50,000. Thomas made slow, careful preparations for his Nashville Campaign (1-16 December 1864). Finally, in a two-day battle beginning 15 December, Thomas struck hard and drove Hood's forces from the field in complete disorder, inflicting heavy losses and taking 4,462 prisoners. Thomas lost 387 killed and 2,949 wounded. There is no report on Hood's losses, but his command had been shattered and was never again an offensive threat.

The beginning of 1865 found Confederate resistance practically at an end at Petersburg and Richmond, where Lee's Army of Northern Virginia grimly held its position. Late in March Grant began a major effort to destroy this last island of resistance. Federal troops immediately under Grant in the Richmond area numbered 101,000 infantry, 14,700 cavalry, and 9,000 artillery. Lee had 46,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry, and 5,000 artillery. Except for a holding force at Richmond, most of Lee's troops were manning the long line of fortifications that extended north and south of Petersburg.

At Petersburg, on 29 March, Grant began an encircling movement with part of his force around Lee's right (south) flank, while his main body of troops

moved to strike directly at that flank. The movement was halted by Confederate forces under Generals Pickett and Hill in battles around White Oak Road (31 March) and at Five Forks (1 April); but on 2 April Grant mounted an assault on Lee's right that broke the Confederate line. As the Confederates withdrew toward Petersburg, Lee pulled Longstreet's corps away from Richmond to help hold the line. The action on 2 April ended the Petersburg Campaign, which had begun in June of 1864, and 3 April marked the beginning of the Appomattox Campaign (3-9 April 1865). Forced to abandon the fortifications, Lee struck out with his army on 3 April and hastened west along the Appomattox River, hoping to break loose and eventually join forces with Johnston to the south. But Grant pursued relentlessly, and a four-day running fight ensued during which Lee's army began to disintegrate. Finally a Union force under Sheridan raced ahead and took a position squarely athwart Lee's line of retreat at Appomattox Court House. This ended the fight. On 9 April 1865 Lee met Grant in Appomattox and surrendered. Confederate losses in killed and wounded from 29 March through 7 April are estimated at well over 6,000; other thousands, individually or by unit, escaped capture or deserted, and 26,765 were surrendered by Lee on 9 April. Federal losses during the same period were 1,316 killed, 7,750 wounded, and 1,714 missing.

On 26 April 1865 Johnston surrendered to Sherman near Raleigh, and by the end of May other Confederate

forces had given up the struggle.

Most, but not all, of the fighting that had an important effect on the progress and outcome of the Civil War took place during the 25 named campaigns that have been summarized above. It is impossible, in this brief account, even to mention many of the important battles among the more than 2,000 engagements that took place during the four years of conflict. Neither has it been possible to give more than passing mention to the activities of the United States Navy, which played a major role in the overall war effort.

CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. Upon the collapse of the Confederacy, Andrew Johnson, who became President upon Lincoln's death on 15 April 1865, appointed civil governors over the States that had been in rebellion. Later Congress passed various pieces of legislation which placed the South under military government until 1870. Ten of the former Confederate States were divided into five military districts, each commanded by a major general. Civil control was gradually restored, and from 1870 to 1877 the Army was used to maintain law and order and to uphold civil authority. Occupation responsibilities ended in 1877, and Army units stationed in the South returned to the performance of normal garrison duties.

President Johnson issued two proclamations officially ending the Civil War so far as public matters are concerned. One, dated 2 April 1866, embraced all former Confederate States except Texas; the other, dated 20 August 1866, embraced Texas.

CAUSES OF THE WAR. The basic cause of the Spanish-American War was American sympathy for Cuban insurgents who were fighting for independence. Underlying this was the fact that at the end of the nineteenth century the United States was emerging as a world power, and the energy that had gone into westward expansion was seeking new outlets. It was natural that some of this energy should be directed to the Caribbean area, which was of great strategic and economic importance to the nation.

Rebellion against autocratic Spanish rule in Cuba had been sporadic throughout the nineteenth century. In 1895 a new and violent insurrection broke out. Spanish authorities adopted stern measures of repression, including the use of concentration camps in which thousands of Cubans died of starvation and disease. The American public, traditionally sympathetic to the aspirations of colonials for independence, became incensed against Spain, especially since certain American newspapers reported-and in