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Japan might surrender before the Allied invasion of the home islands could take place. Such planning was encouraged by peace feelers the Japanese Government had put out in Moscow during May and June, but on which the Soviet Government had taken no action.

At Potsdam, the Allied leaders worked out a surrender formula intended to clarify Allied intentions with respect to Japan and designed to reassure the Japanese people that those intentions were to impose just peace terms. The resulting document, known as the Potsdam Declaration (or Ultimatum), outlined surrender terms and warned the Japanese of the overwhelming character of the force the Allies would bring to bear if they did not capitulate at once. This Declaration was transmitted to the Japanese on 26 July 1945. On 30 July, Kantaro Suzuki, the Japanese Premier, made a public statement that the Japanese would meet the Potsdam Declaration with continued defiance.

Meanwhile, on the day before the Potsdam Conference convened, Allied scientists at Alamogordo Air Base in New Mexico had produced a man-made atomic explosion for the first time, and secret announcement of this event to the leaders at Potsdam led to what was undoubtedly one of the most crucial decisions in the history of mankind.

The Atomic Age Opens. Work began in the United States in 1941 on the development of a weapon based on the utilization of atomic energy. Late that year, President Roosevelt suggested to the British that Great Britain and the United States pool their resources and facilities to seek a means of releasing the energy of the atom for military purposes. The ensuing program of research and development, known as the MANHATTAN Project, was one of the most daring and expensive gambles in history, costing in the neighborhood of two billion dollars. It was also the best kept secret of the war, in spite of the fact that as many as 125,000 workers participated in the project, including an imposing number of top-ranking scientists.

News of the first successful explosion of an atomic bomb on 16 July 1945 was rushed secretly to President Truman,

who was at Potsdam waiting for the Conference to convene. Truman informed Stalin and Churchill of the development, and their warning, in the Potsdam Declaration concerning the overwhelming force that would be visited upon the Japanese, was a threat of far more consequence than the Japanese had any way of knowing.

Suzuki's declaration of continued defiance came two days before the Conference adjourned on 2 August, and the fateful decision was made to use the atomic bomb on Japan. On 6 August 1945 an American plane dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan, completely destroying more than four square miles of the city and killing from 80,000 to 100,000 Japanese. A second and more powerful bomb was dropped on Nagasaki three days later; damage and loss of life were slightly less terrible than at Hiroshima, because the terrain served to curtail the effect of the explosion.

Russia's Entry into the War. On 8 August 1945, two days after the destruction of Hiroshima, the Soviets declared war on Japan. In a blitz operation that overwhelmed Japanese forces, Soviet Far East Forces overran Manchuria, the northern half of Korea, Harbin, the southern half of Sakhalin, and the Kuriles in a matter of about two weeks. Operations continued until the Soviets had insured achievement of the objectives they had announced at Yalta and despite the fact that the Japanese had in the meantime sued for peace.

Surrender of Japan. Certain elements of the Japanese military wished to continue the war even after the atomic bombs had fallen, and only the personal intervention of the Emperor brought about a decision on the part of the Japanese Government to ask for peace. The first offer to surrender, broadcast on 10 August, announced acceptance of the Potsdam terms provided the sovereignty of the Emperor was not questioned. After consulting with the other Allied Powers, Secretary of State James F. Byrnes sent a message to the Japanese which, without promising, implied that the Emperor would not be dethroned and would retain some prerogatives. On 14 August 1945, the Japanese announced acceptance of the terms as

elucidated by Secretary Byrnes, and a cease-fire promptly went into effect.

Occupation of Japan by American troops began on 28 August 1945. In accordance with the wishes of the Emperor, expressed in a broadcast announcing the surrender to the Japanese people, the occupation was accepted with good grace and there were no untoward incidents. The official instrument of surrender was signed by emissaries of the Japanese Government aboard the battleship Missouri on 2 September 1945. This date was declared V-J Day, the official end of World War II.

The United States and 48 other nations signed a definitive Treaty of Peace with Japan at San Francisco on 8 September 1951. The Soviet Union, Poland, and Czechoslovakia refused to sign this treaty, and India and Burma did not attend the conference. The Japanese Diet approved ratification of the pact on 18 November, and the Emperor signed it the following day. The United States Senate approved ratification on 20 March 1952 and President Truman signed the pact on 15 April 1952. According to agreements reached at San Fran

cisco, the Treaty went into effect on 28 April 1952.

U. S. ARMED FORCES STRENGTH AND CASUALTIES, WORLD WAR II. The total number of individuals serving in the United States Armed Forces during World War II (7 December 1941-31 August 1945) was 15,144,306 (Army10,420,000; Navy-3,883,520; Marines599,693; Coast Guard-241,093). Peak strength of the Army (including Army Air Forces) came in May 1945; Army personnel on active duty totaled 8,293,766; (commissioned officers (less Army Nurse Corps)-781,406; Army Nurse Corps-54,128; warrant and flight officers-56,853; enlisted personnel-7,398,949; USMA Cadets-2430).

Battle deaths incurred by personnel of the United States Armed Forces during the period 7 December 1941 to 31 December 1946 totaled 292,131 (Army234,874; Navy-36,950; Marines-19,733; Coast Guard-574); deaths from other causes totaled 115,187 (Army-83,400; Navy-25,664; Marines 4,778; Coast Guard-1345). Wounds not mortal totaled 671,801 (Army-565,861; Navy— 37,778; Marines-67,207; Coast Guard955).

THE KOREAN WAR

CAUSES AND OUTBREAK OF THE WAR. World attention was drawn to the mountainous peninsula of Korea when Communist-dominated North Korean forces launched a powerful offensive against the free Republic of (South) Korea in June of 1950.

For centuries Korea has been a focal point of conflict for China, Japan, and Russia, because its location offered each of these powers a threshold for aggression against either of the other two. Korea, from ancient times down to the last quarter of the 19th Century, had been dominated by China. By the terms imposed by Japan after the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95, China was forced to recognize what the Japanese were pleased to call "Korean Independence." In 1905 the Treaty of Portsmouth, which ended the Russo-Japanese War, gave Japan a protectorate over Korea. In 1910 Japan annexed the country outright. Thus Korea had been under Japanese domination for almost half a cen

tury when Russian forces crossed the northern Korean frontier on 12 August 1945, just three days after the Russian declaration of war against Japan in World War II.

As the war was drawing to a close, the 38th parallel of north latitude, which divides Korea almost equally north and south, was designated a temporary line of demarcation to facilitate the surrender of the Japanese troops. Those north of this line surrendered to Soviet forces; those south, to United States forces. The parallel was not intended to divide the country permanently, but Soviet forces established outposts and patrols and halted passage across the line, effectively separating Korea into two parts.

After the Soviet Union thwarted every attempt to implement the Moscow Agreement of 27 December 1945, which aimed at establishing a Korean provisional government, the United States requested, on 17 September 1947, that the

problem of Korean unity and independence be put before the United Nations. As a result, a U.N. resolution proposed that the Korean people create a provisional government by a free election to be held in the spring of 1948. The election, held on 10 May 1948 in South Korea, resulted in the inauguration of the government of the Republic of Korea on 15 August 1948 under President Syngman Rhee. U.S. occupation forces were then withdrawn from South Korea. By June 1949 only the 500 men of the U.S. Military Advisory Group to the Republic of Korea (KMAG) remained to continue the training of the South Korean security forces. The new government was acknowledged by the United States as the valid government in Korea, but it was denied U.N. membership by a veto of the Soviet Union.

Communist rule in North Korea was formalized on 9 September 1948 by the inauguration of the People's Democratic Republic of Korea. The 38th parallel, which had been originally selected as a military expedient, now became a permanent political frontier. In December 1948 the Soviet Government announced that it had completed the withdrawal of its occupation forces from North Korea.

From 1948 to 1950 the free government of the Republic of Korea was subjected to constant pressure designed to disrupt its unity. Worldwide propaganda facilities began a systematic program of character assassination against President Rhee. The North Korean government conducted border raids, guerrilla action, sabotage, and a bitter propaganda campaign south of the 38th parallel to weaken the confidence of the South Koreans in their new government. It also sought to strangle the Republic by refusing economic cooperation.

American economic aid and technical assistance were extended to South Korea during this period, and large amounts of surplus naval and military equipment were transferred to the Korean military establishment. However, the light weapons provided as part of this equipment were intended not for aggressive action against North Korea, but merely to maintain the internal se

curity of South Korea.

The Invasion. Communist efforts to divide the South Koreans against themselves having failed, the North Koreans decided to attempt their subjugation by military force. At 0400, Sunday, 25 June 1950 (Korean Time), North Korean forces crossed the 38th parallel into the Republic and launched their main effort toward the South Korean capital city of Seoul, down the P'och'onUijongbu and Yonch'on-Uijongbu corridors. Strong attacks were also directed through Kaesong toward Munsan on the right, and toward Ch'unch'on on the left. On the west coast the Ongjin Peninsula was quickly captured. On the east coast a land column and a small seaborne detachment met near Kangnung.

By 28 June Seoul had fallen, the North Koreans had closed up along the Han River to a point about 20 miles east of Seoul, and had advanced as far as Samchok on the east coast. By 4 July enemy forces were along the line Suwon-Wonju-Samchok. In withdrawing, the Republic of Korea ("ROK") forces had suffered such serious losses that their attempts to regroup and retain order were almost futile.

Forces Involved. The invading forces included seven North Korean infantry divisions and one armored division, under the command of General Choi Yun Kung, supported by about 150 T-34 tanks and 100 Russian aircraft. The infantry divisions included 3 rifle regiments of 3 battalions each, an artillery regiment, and a self-propelled gun battalion. These forces were well-trained, well-equipped with Russian materiel, and carefully rehearsed in the invasion plan. They numbered some 90,000 men, of whom about a third were seasoned veterans who had fought with Chinese Communist or Soviet forces in World War II.

At the time of the invasion there were four South Korean divisions in positions along the 38th parallel. These divisions, patterned after our own, had a T/O strength of 10,000 men and were equipped and trained by the United States. They had no tanks, medium or heavy artillery, heavy mortars, recoilless rifles, or fighter or bomber aircraft. Many of the weapons and vehicles were

unserviceable because spare parts were lacking, and only a small supply of artillery and mortar ammunition was on hand. Training had progressed to the battalion level, with most units having completed small unit training at company level only. Total ROK Army strength (eight divisions) was about 95,000, of whom 65,000 were combat effective.

Response of the United Nations. It was apparent that the goal of the North Korean Command was a speedy and decisive victory over the Republic of Korea before substantial aid could be given the Seoul government. The promptness with which the United Nations and the United States reacted to the invasion had not been anticipated by the Communist leaders.

On 25 June 1950 the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution calling "for immediate cessation of hostilities" and "upon the authorities of North Korea to withdraw forthwith their armed forces to the thirty-eighth parallel." When the North Koreans failed to accede to these demands, the Security Council passed a second resolution recommending "that the Members of the United Nations furnish such assistance to the Republic of Korea as may be necessary to repel the armed attack and restore the international peace and security in the area."

President Truman announced on 27 June 1950 that he had ordered American air and naval forces to give cover and support to the South Korean troops (UN Defensive-27 June to 15 September 1950). On the 28th he authorized the Commander in Chief Far East to use certain supporting ground units in Korea, and authorized the U.S. Air Force to conduct missions on specific targets in North Korea. On the 30th the President further authorized the C. in C. Far East to use all forces available to him to repel the invasion, and ordered a naval blockade of the entire coast of Korea.

A Security Council resolution of 7 July 1950 recommended the establishment of a unified command in Korea and requested the United States to designate a commander of these forces. On 8 July President Truman announced the appointment of General

of the Army Douglas MacArthur as Commander in Chief, United Nations Command (CINCUNC). On 14 July President Rhee placed all ROK security forces under the United Nations commander, an act which consolidated the anti-Communist forces under the United Nations Command for the purpose of repelling the Communist aggression.

THE PERIOD PRECEDING CHINESE INTERVENTION. United States Forces Enter the Conflict. The U.S. forces at MacArthur's disposal included the four divisions in Japan-the 1st Cavalry Division and the 7th, 24th, and 25th Infantry Divisions-and the 29th Regimental Combat Team in Okinawa. The divisions were lacking a third of their infantry and artillery units and almost all their armor units. Existing units were far under strength. Weapons and equipment were warworn relics of World War II, and ammunition reserves amounted to only a 45-day supply. None of the divisions had reached full combat efficiency, since intensive training had been largely neglected because of occupation duties.

Initial U.S. strategy, dictated by the speed of the North Korean drive and the state of American unpreparedness, was one of trading space for time. On 2 July 1950 Task Force Smith, composed of two rifle companies and a few supporting units of the 24th Division, was flown from Japan to Pusan and moved by train and truck to defensive positions near Osan, 30 miles south of Seoul. Its mission was to fight a delaying action to gain time for the movement of more troops from Japan. On 5 July this small force was attacked by a North Korean division supported by 30 tanks and compelled to withdraw, after a stubborn defense, with heavy losses of men and equipment.

By this time the remaining elements of the 24th Division had reached Korea and were in defensive positions along the Kum River, north of Taejon and 60 miles south of Osan. ROK elements held positions to the east, some 50 miles above Taegu. By 15 July the 25th Division had arrived in Korea and was positioned east of the 24th Division. The 1st Cavalry Division arrived and closed in the P'chang-dong area on 18-19 July. Lt. Gen. Walton H. Walker, Com

mander of the U.S. Eighth Army, had been placed in command of all U.S. ground troops in Korea on 13 July, and, at the request of President Rhee, of the

South Korean Army as well. As the ground troops of other U.N. members reached Korea, they also were placed under Walker's command.

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