bat troops under Maj. Gen. Elwell S. Otis, defeated Aguinaldo's force of some 40,000 men (4-6 February 1899) and suppressed an attempted uprising in Manila (22 February).

American columns pushed north, east, and south from Manila to split the insurgent forces and seize key towns. Maj. Gen. Arthur MacArthur's column seized Caloocan (10 February 1899), Malolos, the rebel capital (31 March), San Fernando, Pampagna (5 May), and the stronghold of San Isidro (15 May) which was held only temporarily. Brig. Gen. Loyd Wheaton's column gained control of the Pasig River in March 1899, permanently interrupting communications between insurgent forces in north and south Luzon. Maj. Gen. Henry W. Lawton's column captured Santa Cruz (10 April 1899) in the Laguna de Bay area and overran strong insurgent intrenchments on the Zapote River (13 June).

Although control of Luzon was the principal military objective in 1899, measures were also taken to establish American control over other important islands. Iloilo on Panay was occupied on 11 February, Cebu on 26 February, Bacolod in Negros on 10 March, and Jolo in the Sulu Archipelago on 19 May.

The rainy season in mid-1899 compelled a pause in operations in Luzon. During this pause the first Philippine native units were organized and large numbers of additional troops began to arrive, bringing the strength of the American force (Eighth Army Corps) to some 47,500 men by the end of 1899 and to 75,000 a year later.

In October 1899, organized resistance in Cavite and adjacent provinces was destroyed by forces under General Wheaton and Brig. Gen. Theodore Schwan. In the same month General Otis launched a three-pronged offensive in north Luzon directed at Aguinaldo's remaining forces. Lawton's column moved up the Rio Grande de la Pampagna, recaptured San Isidro (19 October), and neared San Fabian on Lingayen Gulf (18 November). MacArthur's forces advanced through the central Luzon plain, seized Tarlac (12 November), and reached Dagupan on 20 November. Wheaton's amphibious expedition from Manila landed at San

Fabian (7 November), routed insurgents at San Jacinto (12 November), and linked up with MacArthur's column at Dagupan on 20 November 1899.

After these campaigns only scattered insurrectionist elements remained active in north and south Luzon. Lawton (killed on 18 December 1899) drove up the Marikina in December to cut important insurgent communication lines, and Wheaton and Schwan completed the pacification of Cavite in January and February 1900. Subsequently, insurgent remnants in the Visayans and Mindanao were dispersed. The capture of Aguinaldo by Brig. Gen. Frederick Funston on 23 March 1901 dealt the final blow to the insurgent cause. President Roosevelt announced official conclusion of the Insurrection on 4 July 1902.

CAMPAIGNS AGAINST THE MOROS, 1902-04, 1905, 1906, 1913. In 1902 serious trouble began with the Moros, a Mohammedan people in Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago, who had never been completely subjugated by the Spanish. When the Army occupied former Spanish garrison points, the Moros began to raid villages, attack soldiers, and otherwise resist American jurisdiction. Between July 1902 and December 1904, and again in late 1905, the Army dispatched expeditions into the interior of Mindanao to destroy Moro strongholds. Col. Frank D. Baldwin with some 1,000 men (including elements of his own 27th Infantry and a mountain battery) invaded the territory of the Sultan of Bayan near Lake Lanao and defeated the Sultan's forces in the hotly contested Battle of Bayan on 2 May 1902. Capt. John J. Pershing headed a similar expedition into the Lanao country in 1903, and Capt. Frank R. McCoy finally killed the notorious Moro outlaw, Dato Ali, in the Cotabato district in October 1905.

In May 1905, March 1906, and June 1913, Regulars had to cope with disorders too extensive to be handled by the local constabulary and Philippine Scouts on the island of Jolo, a Moro stronghold.

CHINA RELIEF EXPEDITION, 19001901. The so-called "Boxers" were fanatical members of a Chinese secret society who wished to drive all foreign

ers from China and eradicate foreign influences. The Boxer movement gained momentum in the final years of the nineteenth century. By early June of 1900 the foreigners in China, especially those in Peking, found themselves in grave danger.

An international column of sailors and marines, including 112 Americans, made a hurried attempt to go to the relief of Peking, but met with severe resistance after it left Tientsin and failed to get through (10-26 June). The movement against Westerners in Peking reached a climax on 20 June 1900 when the German minister was murdered. About 3,500 foreigners and Chinese Christians, fearing for their safety, took refuge in the foreign legation compound, where they were besieged by thousands of Chinese. A composite military force of 407 men (including 56 Americans) plus about 200 civilians defended the compound. The Great Powers took immediate steps to organize a large relief expedition for Peking, to stamp out what came to be known as the Boxer Rebellion.

Using Manila as a main base, the United States promptly dispatched to China Regulars intended for use in the Philippine Insurrection. The 9th Infantry and a Marine battalion landed at Taku on 7 July 1900. Two battalions of the 9th joined contingents of other powers in an attack on Tientsin, which fell on 13 July, the Americans suffering 95 casualties.

On 4 August 1900 an allied force of eighteen or nineteen thousand men began an advance on Peking, 70 miles distant. The American contingent, some 2,500 men under Maj. Gen. Adna R. Chaffee, consisted of the 9th Infantry and 14th Infantry, elements of the 6th Cavalry, the 5th Artillery, and a Marine battalion. High points of the fighting en route were at Pei-tsang, which fell on 5 August 1900, and a severe engagement for American and British contingents at Yang-tsun on 6 August. In the seizure of the Outer City of Peking on 14 August, elements of the 14th Infantry scaled the Tartar Wall, planted the first foreign flag ever to fly there, and opened the way for British units to relieve the legation compound. On the following day "Reilly's Battery" (Capt.

Henry J. Reilly's Light Battery F, 5th Artillery) blasted open the gates on the American front in the assault on the Inner City.

Most American units were withdrawn to Manila before winter, and mopping up operations in the provinces were left to the other Powers. A few American Regulars remained to form part of an allied occupation force and a small guard for the United States Legation in Peking.

The Boxer Protocol of 7 September 1901, negotiated by the Great Powers with China, included provisions for a fortified legation quarter, foreign garrisons along the Tientsin-Peking railway, and a large indemnity. In 1908 the United States remitted a portion of its share of the indemnity, which the Chinese Government diverted to educational purposes.

MEXICAN BORDER TROUBLES, 1911-19. Perpetual political instability in Mexico during this period compelled the United States to maintain strong forces on the border. Crises in 1914 and 1916 nearly led to war.

On 9 April 1914 Mexican officials seized an American naval launch at Tampico. On demand, the crew and passengers were released, but the Mexican Government refused to make amends and apologies. Thereupon the entire Atlantic Fleet concentrated off Vera Cruz. A landing party went ashore on 21 April 1914 to intercept a shipment of arms to the Mexican Army, and fighting ensued which resulted in Congressional authorization for the use of armed force to secure redress from the Mexican Government.

An expeditionary force under Brig. Gen. Frederick Funston, composed of the Fifth Brigade (4th, 7th, 9th, and 28th Infantry regiments), began landing at Vera Cruz on 28 April 1914. Elements of the 4th Field Artillery and the 6th Cavalry followed a few days later. When Funston took command of the city of Vera Cruz on 30 April, he had a land force of more than 7,300 men4,000 soldiers and 3,300 marines. He established a firm defensive position and supervised organization of a military government. Changes in the Mexican Government made possible the withdrawal of the American forces from

Vera Cruz on 23 November 1914.

An increasing number of border incidents early in 1916 culminated in an invasion of American territory on 8 March, when Francisco (Pancho) Villa and his band of 500 to 1,000 men raided Columbus, New Mexico. Elements of the 13th Cavalry repulsed the attack, but there were 24 American casualties (14 military, 10 civilian). Immediate steps were taken to organize a punitive expedition of about 10,000 men under Brig. Gen. John J. Pershing to capture Villa. The 7th, 10th, 11th, and 13th Cavalry regiments, 6th and 16th Infantry regiments, part of the 6th Field Artillery, and supporting elements crossed the border into Mexico in midMarch, followed later by the 5th Cavalry, 17th and 24th Infantry regiments, and engineer and other units. Pershing was subject to orders which required him to respect the sovereignty of Mexico, and was further hindered by the fact that the Mexican Government and people resented the invasion. Advanced elements of the expedition penetrated as far as Parral, some 400 miles south of the border, but Villa was never captured. The campaign consisted primarily of dozens of minor skirmishes with small bands of insurgents. There were even clashes with Mexican Army units; the most serious was on 21 June 1916 at Carrizal, where a detachment of the 10th Cavalry was nearly destroyed. War would probably have been declared but for the critical situation in Europe. Even so, virtually the entire Regular Army was involved, and most of the National Guard had been Federalized and concentrated on the border before the end of the affair. Normal relations with Mexico were restored

eventually by diplomatic negotiation, and the troops were withdrawn from Mexico in February 1917.

Minor clashes with Mexican irregulars continued to disturb the border from 1917 to 1919. Engagements took place near Buena Vista, Mexico on 1 December 1917; in San Bernardino Canyon, Mexico on 26 December 1917; near La Grulla, Texas on 8-9 January 1918; at Pilares, Mexico about 28 March 1918; at Nogales, Arizona on 27 August 1918; and near El Paso, Texas on 15-16 June 1919.

CAMPAIGNS IN THE CARIBBEAN AND OTHER AREAS, 1900-34. Unsettled conditions in the Caribbean region led to armed intervention by the United States on numerous occasions from 1900 to 1934. Most of these interventions were carried out by the Marine Corps. Marine units were dispatched to Honduras in 1903 and 1907; to the Dominican Republic in 1903, 1904, 1914, and 1916-24; to Nicaragua in 1910, 1912, 1925, and 1927-33; and to Haiti in 1914 and 1915-34. The most important of these operations, employing the largest number of Marine units, were the Haitian campaign and occupation, 9 July 1915 to 15 August 1934; the Dominican Republic campaign and occupation, 5 May 1916 to 16 September 1924; and the expeditionary service in Nicaragua, 1 January 1927 to 2 January 1933.

Marines also participated in operations and occupations in areas other than the Caribbean during this period, as follows: Colombia in 1903-04; Korea in 1904-05; Cuba in 1906-09, 1912, and 1917; China in 1900, 1911-14, 1924, 1925. and 1927-41; and Mexico in 1914.

In the intervals between major wars, from 1783 to 1898, the Indian problem was the most important continuing concern of the Army. During these periods the Regular Army was consistently small, ranging from about 4,000 in the 1790's to 27,000 in the late 1800's, and most of its combat troops were thinly scattered along the frontier, moving with, and often far ahead of, the most

advanced line of settlement. Between 1790 and 1898 the Army carried out an estimated 69 separate expeditions against the Indians, and participated in literally thousands of minor skirmishes. The Department of the Army has designated 14 named campaigns of the Indian Wars. The Army was also on call to assist other government agencies, especially the Bureau of

Indian Affairs, in the negotiation and enforcement of treaties and by the provision of military force in whatever form needed.

The complex story of the Indian Wars can best be traced on a regional basis. While there was considerable overlapping of periods, each of the following regions, in turn, constituted a part of the frontier and became the focal point of the continuing conflict between Indians and white men: (1) Old Northwest, 1790-1832; (2) Southeast, 1813-58; (3) Northern Plains and Rocky Mountains, 1819-98; (4) Southwest, 1836-86; and (5) Pacific Coast, 1840-73.

OLD NORTHWEST, 1790-1832. The principal conflicts in this area were the Miami and Tippecanoe Campaigns and the Winnebago and Black Hawk Wars.

Miami Campaign, 1790-95. In the late 1780's, by reason of a confederacy of hostile Indians, chiefly Miamis, in the northern part of present-day Ohio and Indiana, white settlement in that area was largely restricted to the Ohio Valley. Three separate expeditions were required to remove this obstacle to expansion.

Late in 1790 a force of 320 Regulars and 1,000 Kentucky and Pennsylvania militiamen under Brig. Gen. Josiah Harmar moved north from Fort Washington (Cincinnati) and was badly defeated in two separate engagements on 18 and 22 October 1790 in the vicinity of present-day Fort Wayne, Indiana. Congress then commissioned Governor Arthur St. Clair of the Northwest Territory as a major general. St. Clair collected a force of about 2,000 men, consisting of two regiments of Regulars (300 men each), 800 levies, and 600 militiamen, which advanced slowly north from Fort Washington in September 1791, building a road and forts as it progressed. On the night of 3-4 November 1791, some 1,000 Indians surrounded 1,400 of St. Clair's men (one Regular regiment was in the rear) near the headwaters of the Wabash. The force was routed, and St. Clair, having lost 637 killed and 263 wounded, returned to Fort Washington.

Congress reacted to these disasters by doubling the authorized strength of the Regular Army in 1792 and appointing

Maj. Gen. Anthony Wayne to succeed St. Clair. Wayne joined his troops near Pittsburgh in June 1792 and reorganized his Regulars to form a "Legion" composed of four "sublegions"; these were what today would be called combat teams, each consisting of two battalions of infantry, a battalion of rifles, a troop of dragoons, and a company of artillery. After intensive training the Legion moved to Fort Washington in the spring of 1793, where it joined a force of mounted riflemen, Kentucky levies.

Early in October 1793, after peace negotiations had failed, Wayne's troops advanced slowly along St. Clair's route toward Fort Miami, a new British post on the present site of Toledo. They built fortifications along the way and wintered at Greenville. In the spring of 1794 a detachment of 150 men under Capt. Alexander Gibson was sent to the site of St. Clair's defeat, where they built Fort Recovery. At the end of June more than 1,000 warriors assaulted this fort for two days, but the Indians were effectively beaten and forced to retreat. Wayne moved forward in July with a force of some 3,000 men, including 1,400 levies from Kentucky, paused to build Fort Defiance at the junction of the Glaize and Maumee, and resumed pursuit of the Indians on 15 August. At Fallen Timbers, an area near Fort Miami where a tornado had uprooted trees, the Indians made a stand, On 20 August 1794 the Indians were thoroughly defeated in a two-hour fight that was characterized by Wayne's excellent tactics and the able performance of his well-trained troops. Wayne's men destroyed the Indian villages, including some within sight of the British guns of Fort Miami.

Jay's Treaty (1794) resulted in the evacuation of frontier posts by the British. By the Treaty of Greenville, 3 August 1795, the western tribes of the region ceded their lands in southern and eastern Ohio, and the way was opened for rapid settlement of the Northwest Territory.

Tippecanoe Campaign, 1811. In 1804 Tecumseh, a Shawnee, and his medicine man brother, the Prophet, with British backing, began serious efforts to form a new Indian confederacy in the Northwest. Governor William Henry Harrison

of the Indiana Territory rejected Tecumseh's demand that settlers be kept out of the region. In the summer of 1811 Harrison, with the approval of the War Department, undertook to break up the confederacy before it could organize a major attack against the settlements.

In September 1811 Harrison moved from Vincennes up the Wabash with a well-trained force of 320 Regular infantry and 650 militia. After building Fort Harrison at Terre Haute as an advanced base, Harrison marched with 800 men toward the main Indian village on Tippecanoe Creek, bivouacking in battle order on 6 November on the north bank of the Wabash, within sight of the village. Tecumseh being absent, Harrison conferred with the Prophet, who gave the impression that he would not attack while a peace proposal was under consideration. Nevertheless, just before dawn on 7 November, the Indians attacked Harrison's force. In a wild hand-to-hand encounter the Indians were routed and their village destroyed. Harrison lost 39 killed and missing, 151 wounded; the Indians suffered comparable losses. This indecisive victory did not solve the Indian problems in the Northwest. The tribes of that area were to make common cause with the British in the War of 1812.

Winnebago War, 1827. The Winnebagos of Wisconsin, long friendly with the French and British, rose against the new settlements in southwestern Wisconsin in 1827. Prompt action by the territorial governor (Lewis Cass) and by Regular Army and militia units checked the uprising. The Winnebagos were expelled from Wisconsin, and Fort Winnebago was constructed by the 1st Infantry at the portage of the Fox and Wisconsin Rivers in 1828.

Black Hawk War, 1832. A faction of Sauk and Fox Indians, living in eastern Iowa and led by Black Hawk, threatened to go on the warpath in 1832 when squatters began to preempt Illinois lands formerly occupied by the two tribes. The faction held that cession of these lands to the Federal Government in 1804 had been illegal. Black Hawk asserted that he would remove the squatters forcibly, and attempted without success to organize a confederacy

and make an alliance with the British. Finally, with some 500 warriors and 1,500 women and children, he crossed the Mississippi into Illinois in early 1832 and refused to return. Brig. Gen. Henry Atkinson pursued him up the Rock River with a force made up of elements of the 1st, 4th, and 6th Infantry regiments and Illinois militia. A volunteer detachment suffered heavy losses in a skirmish on 14 May 1832 near present-day Dixon, Illinois and Atkinson had to pause to recruit new militia. On 21 July a volunteer force severely chastised the Indians near Madison, Wisconsin. Atkinson finally penned up and virtually annihilated the starving remnants of Black Hawk's band at the confluence of the Mississippi and Bad Axe on 2 August 1832. Some 150 braves were killed, and Black Hawk himself was subsequently captured.

SOUTHEAST, 1813-58. In this period there were major campaigns in the Southeast against the numerous Upper and Lower Creeks in Alabama and Georgia, and against the Seminoles, descendants of Creeks who had migrated to Florida in the eighteenth century.

Creek Campaigns, 1813-14, 1836-37. The first of the Creek campaigns constitutes a phase of the War of 1812. The Upper Creeks, siding with the English, sacked Fort Mims in the summer of 1813, massacring more than 500 men, women, and children. These same Indians, grown to a force of about 900 warriors, were decisively beaten at Horseshoe Bend (Alabama) late in March 1814 by Maj. Gen. Andrew Jackson and his force of about 2,000 Regulars, militia, and volunteers, plus several hundred friendly Indians.

In 1832 many Creeks were sent to the Indian Territory, and most of those remaining in the Southeast were removed there in 1836-37 when they went on the warpath during the Second Seminole War (see below).

Seminole Wars, 1817-18, 1835-42, 185558. There were three distinct campaigns against the Seminoles of the Florida swamplands. The first two were of major proportions, involving thousands of Regular and volunteer troops over periods of months and years.

First Seminole War, November 1817October 1818. This conflict began with