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Mexican

Victorio was killed by troops in 1880, but Chato and Geronimo remained at large until May 1883, when they surrendered to General Crook and elements of the 6th Cavalry, reinforced by Apache scouts, at a point some 200 miles inside Mexico. Two years later Geronimo and about 150 Chiricahua Apaches again left their White Mountain reservation (Arizona) and once more terrorized the border region. Elements of the 4th Cavalry and Apache scouts immediately took up pursuit of the Chiricahua renegades. In January 1886 Capt. Emmet Crawford and 80 Apache scouts attacked Geronimo's main band some 200 miles south of the border, but the Indians escaped into the mountains. Although Crawford was killed by Mexican irregulars shortly thereafter, his second in command, 1st Lt. M. P. Maus, was able to negotiate Geronimo's surrender to Crook in late March 1886. However, Geronimo and part of his band escaped within a few days (29 March). Capt. Henry W. Lawton's column (elements of the 4th Cavalry, 8th Infantry, and Apache scouts) surprised his camp in the mountains of Mexico on 20 July. Although the Chiricahuas again fled, by the end of August they indicated a willingness to surrender. On 4 September 1886, 1st Lt. Charles B. Gatewood of Lawton's command negotiated the formal surrender to Brig. Gen. Nelson Miles, who had relieved Crook in April. Geronimo and his band were removed to Florida, and finally to the Fort Sill military reservation.

PACIFIC COAST, 1840-73. Since the Pacific Coast tribes were small and acted independently, the campaigns of this region required employment of comparatively few Regular Army troops.

A prolonged campaign against the Cayuse Indians began with the massacre of Dr. Marcus Whitman (a missionary), his wife, and 12 other whites near present-day Walla Walla, Washington, on 29 November 1847. The campaign ended in 1850 with the voluntary surrender of 5 confessed perpetrators of the massacre, who were later tried and hanged.

Regulars campaigned in the early 1850's against Indians near the important

Colorado River crossing at Fort Yuma (elements of the 1st Dragoons and 2d Infantry in 1851-52); in the Pit River region of northern California (part of the 3d Artillery in 1850); and in the Rogue River country of southwestern Oregon (elements of the 1st Dragoons, 3d Artillery, and 4th Infantry in 185156).

In the Pacific Northwest a remarkable chieftain, Kamiakin, formed an alliance of his own Yakima tribe with the Klickatas and began a war against the settlers in 1855. Before this conflict ended (in September 1858) with Col. George Wright's decisive expedition into the Spokane area, it had involved most of the tribes of the region, and elements of the 1st Dragoons, 3d Artillery, and 4th and 9th Infantry regiments; and the area of conflict had extended west to Puget Sound.

The Modoc Campaign of 1872-73 was the last Indian war of consequence on the Pacific Coast. The Modocs, a small and restless tribe, had been placed on a reservation with the Klamaths, their traditional enemies. They shortly found the situation intolerable. A majority of them left the reservation, led by a chief known as "Captain Jack," and returned to their old lands. A detail of 1st Cavalry troops under Capt. James Jackson became involved in a skirmish with these Modocs on Lost River on 29 November 1872, when the troops sought to disarm them and arrest the leaders. Following the skirmish, Captain Jack and about 120 warriors, with ample supplies, retreated to a naturally fortified area in the Lava Beds east of Mount Shasta. On 17 January 1873 Col. Alvan Gillem's detachment of some 400 men, half of them Regulars from the 1st Cavalry and 21st Infantry, attacked the Modoc positions, but the troops could make no progress in the almost impassable terrain and suffered a loss of 10 killed and 28 wounded.

By the spring of 1873, Brig. Gen. Edward R. S. Canby, commander of the Department of the Pacific, had collected about 1,000 men (elements of the 1st Cavalry, the 12th and 21st Infantry regiments, and the 4th Artillery) to besiege the Modocs. Indian Bureau officials failed in attempts at negotiation, but General Canby and three civilian

commissioners were able to arrange a parley with an equal number of Modoc representatives on 11 April. The Indians treacherously violated the truce. Captain Jack himself killed General Canby; one of the commissioners was also killed, and another wounded. The siege was resumed.

Brig. Gen. Jefferson C. Davis, who arrived in May to replace Canby, moved his columns deep into the Lava

Beds, harrying the Indians day and night with mortar and rifle fire. When their source of water was cut off, the Indians were finally forced into the open, and all were captured by 1 June 1873. Captain Jack and two others were hanged, and the rest of the tribe was removed to the Indian Territory. During the course of the siege some 80 white men had been killed.

DOMESTIC DISTURBANCES

The Army is one of the agencies available to the President, in the discharge of his duties under the Constitution, to see that the laws of the Union are faithfully executed and to guarantee to each State a republican form of government. State governments bear the major responsibility for controlling domestic disturbances within their borders, and normally the President acts only at the request of a governor or State legislature. However, under the statutes passed by Congress at various times, the President has been authorized to use either the Regular forces or the militia (the modern equivalent of which is the National Guard) to enforce the laws of the Union. In the course of our history the President has thus used the Regular Army, or the militia/National Guard called into Federal service, over a hundred times-to assist the governments of the various States in dispersing violent mobs and restoring law and order, to uphold Federal law, or to protect Federal property.

There were a number of such instances in the period from 1781 to the Civil War. Even before the adoption of the Constitution the Confederation Congress was called upon to recruit militia to deal with rebellious farmers and small property owners in western Massachusetts. State militia suppressed Shays' Rebellion (1786-87), a protest movement against seizure of property in lieu of debt and tax payments, before militia recruited at the request of the Congress reached Massachusetts. In 1794 a force of 12,950 militiamen, raised in four States and organized

under the direct supervision of President Washington, moved into western Pennsylvania to deal with a widespread insurrection of farmers opposed to paying the Federal excise tax on whisky. A few years later (1799) a force made up of Federal militia, Regulars, and volunteers intervened in the similar Fries Rebellion in northeastern Pennsylvania, which was inspired by opposition to a Federal tax on property. In another instance of resistance to enforcement of revenue laws, Regular forces at Army posts in South Carolina and neighboring states were ordered alerted and strengthened by President Jackson during the tense Tariff Nullification Controversy (1832-33).

In the Dorr Rebellion (1842) in Rhode Island, a protest movement against an extremely limited suffrage, both the governor and the State legislature requested use of Federal troops, but the disturbances subsided before Regulars at Fort Adams had taken the field.

State militia suppressed violent outbreaks against the Mormons in Missouri (1838) and Illinois (1844-46). In 1857-8, however, a strong force of Regulars had to be employed to back up territorial officials in the exercise of their functions when members of this sect, organized in well-armed bands, defied extension of Federal authority to the Utah Territory. The Regular Army likewise played an important role in the disorders resulting from the intensified controversy over slavery in the 1850's. Regulars went into action on several occasions during the Kansas Border Troubles (1854-58). Regular officers commanded the Marine detach

ment which took into custody the perpetrators of John Brown's raid on Harper's Ferry (1859).

A majority of domestic disturbances since the Civil War can be attributed to dissatisfaction with prevailing economic and social conditions. Racial tension was a significant corollary factor in some instances. Disturbances have occurred most frequently in the area of labor-management relations. Two notable examples in the late nineteenth century were the great railroad strikes of 1877 and 1894 each a by-product of economic depression. In 1877 there were riots in cities from coast to coast, and nearly half of the Regular Army was on the move or alerted. The Pullman strikes of 1894 started in Chicago, but soon spread to virtually all parts of the country and required employment of Federal troops at numerous places along the routes of the railroads, particularly in the West. The intervention of Regulars in Illinois to enforce the processes of the Federal courts is one of the few instances in which Federal troops have been used despite the opposition of the State executive (in this case, Governor Altgeld).

In the 1890's and early 1900's our mining industry was repeatedly afflicted with labor troubles culminating in violence which necessitated intervention of Federal troops. Some examples were the disturbances at the silver and lead mines in the Coeur d'Alene Mountains of Idaho (1892), the gold fields of Nevada (1907), and the coal fields of Colorado (1913-14) and West Virginia (1921). In the West, antipathy toward the employment of Oriental workers often combined with general dissatisfaction with working conditions to bring labor unrest. Elsewhere in the country, Regulars were frequently requested to cope with race riots involving whites and negroes, especially in the immediate post-World War I period, when major disturbances

occurred in many cities, including Winston-Salem, North Carolina (November 1918), Washington, D. C. (July 1919), and Omaha, Nebraska (September-November 1919).

Although the great depression of the 1930's, with its widespread economic and social repercussions, gave rise to serious domestic disturbances, Federal troops were used only on a single occasion. This was in 1932, when President Hoover directed their use to disperse unemployed war veterans (the "Bonus Army") who had encamped in Washington, D. C. to make a direct appeal to Congress for economic redress. In this period, however, governors used State militia in a number of instances, notably in disturbances arising out of labor-management disputes.

During World War II and the immediate postwar years the President frequently invoked his emergency and wartime powers to seize, and place under government control, industries where strikes or lockouts threatened the national interest. Thus the Army was directed to seize and operate the North American Aviation Company

plant (1941), most of the railroads (1943, 1946, 1948, and 1950), the Montgomery Ward and Company properties (1944), and the towboat companies in New York City (1946).

In late 1957 President Eisenhower ordered the use of both the Arkansas National Guard and Regulars in the enforcement of a Federal court order relating to racial integration in the pubIlic schools of Little Rock, Arkansas, after the Governor had used the National Guard to oppose its execution. This was the first time since the Civil War that the President had called the National Guard into Federal service for use in a domestic disturbance, and another of the few instances in which troops were thus used without a request from State authorities.

Chapter 30

THE ARMY REBUILDS; CIVIL AFFAIRS AND

MILITARY GOVERNMENT

The term "civil affairs and military government" is subject to various interpretations. However, certain working definitions can be formulated.

"Civil affairs," as commonly understood, deals with the relationship between our military forces in a friendly country (or area) and its civil authorities and population, either before, during, or after a period of hostilities or other emergency. In such a situation the military forces will usually perform certain functions, and exercise certain authority, normally pertaining to the civil government. The relationship is likely to be covered by a treaty or other agreement, expressed or implied.

"Military government" is the machinery by which an occupying Power exercises authority (executive, legislative, and judicial) over an occupied area. In international law, territory is considered to be occupied when it is actually placed under the authority of an invading army. When this occurs, the local civil government may not be able to exercise its normal authority; or

alternatively, the invader, in his own interest, may not allow it to do so. In either case the necessity arises for military government. Whether such government is in fact a military, civil, or mixed administration, its character and the source of its authority are the same. It is imposed by force, and the legality of its acts is determined by the rules of war.

However, experience has shown that either a "civil affairs" or a "military government" situation may be changed to become the other as military or political circumstances may dictate. A sharp line between the two is often hard to draw, since they have a common military nature and are both concerned with political, economic, and sociological matters, as affecting the accomplishment of our military mission. It is better not to attempt to distinguish between them, but to consider "Civil Affairs/Military Government" (CAMG), as it is commonly written, as a general and inclusive term applicable to varying conditions.

OBJECTIVES OF CAMG

The basic objectives of CAMG are the following-

SUPPORT OF OUR MILITARY OPERATIONS. This involves such measures as the control of civil movement, the operation of camps for refugees and displaced persons, the organization of local civil defense agencies, the control of disease and improvement of health conditions, the mobilization of local labor, and the procurement of local supplies and facilities for military

use.

FULFILLMENT OF OBLIGATIONS. A commander has certain obligations to the population, government, and economy of the area affected, arising either from a treaty or civil affairs agreement (as is usual in friendly territory) or from the provisions of international law. Since it is the policy of the United States to discharge its responsibilities in an exemplary manner, faithful observance of international legal obligations is required of its agents and representatives. CAMG must

make provision for the discharge of these responsibilities.

SUPPORT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF NATIONAL POLICIES. National policies are established at the highest level of our Government. Within their framework, foreign and other policies pertaining to the CAMG field are developed by the Department of State, the Department of Defense, and other Federal agencies. CAMG must implement these policies within its area.

TRANSFER OF POWERS. On the cessation of hostilities, or as soon thereafter as the military situation permits, responsibility for the conduct of CAMG

MILITARY OCCUPATIONS

Prior to 1941 we had participated in twenty-one occupations of foreign soil. The most important were in connection with the Mexican War, the SpanishAmerican War, and World War I.

MEXICAN WAR. The military occupation of Mexico in 1847 was our first large-scale experience in military government. Many of the policies and techniques then formulated are still valid.

Major General Winfield Scott commanded the American "task force" which was sent to take Mexico City and force the surrender of the Mexican Government. He had a threefold task-military, diplomatic, and civil. His troops were limited, and the lines of communication with Vera Cruz, the port of invasion, were long and vulnerable. It was vital to keep this route open. He had to gain and maintain the good will of the leading citizens of Mexico. Finally, the dealings of his command with the people and public agencies of Mexico must be in consonance with American traditions and ideals, and also such as to promote the success of our military effort.

At that time there was no written international law governing the conduct of war or the treatment of the inhabitants of occupied territory. General Scott therefore issued a code of law, which he called "martial law." It provided a legal basis for two things: first, military government; and second, the trial of both civilians and troops by a military commission. This code is one source of our present-day concept of

operations is transferred from the military commander to a designated civil agency. The latter may be a reestablished local government or an agency of the United States or its allies. Detailed prior planning is needed to insure continuity of policies. While our forces remain in the area, their commander must deal with the civil government; for this purpose a staff agency is needed. United States or local agencies may be employed to furnish logistical support to our forces, and so permit the withdrawal of military administrative commands and technical service units.

BEFORE WORLD WAR II

military government.

During our occupation of central Mexico, Scott also issued a number of orders to the population. Mexican nationals were promised protection from wanton requisition and actions by the military. Cash was to be paid for all Army purchases and requisitions. Civilians were urged to bring in their livestock, grain, and vegetables for sale. Other activities of the occupation encompassed the fields of what are now known as specialized functions of military government: public safety, public finance, economic rehabilitation, and education. Proper respect was shown for the customs, laws, and religious usages of the country. Scott emphasized, in his proclamations, that he was fighting the Mexican government of Santa Anna, and not the Mexican people.

Scott made use of our existing military organization, instead of creating a special structure. He established areas of government which he placed under civil and military governors. They in turn made use of Mexican personnel, and of existing agencies of the Mexican Government, in performing their tasks.

SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR; THE OCCUPATION OF CUBA. During that war we invaded Cuba. In the treaty of peace Spain gave up all claim to sovereignty over Cuba. This left the island with no government. Accordingly President McKinley, by executive order, established a Division of Cuba, resulting in a reorganization of the territory under a de facto government adminis

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