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and the promotion of their economic and cultural advancement.

There will continue to be a very active CAMG operation in the Ryukyus as long as they retain their military

significance to the peace of the free world. The results achieved by such operations clearly demonstrate the military interest in dealing with the people and their institutions.

CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS

In each of the many countries in which our forces are stationed, the relation between them and the civil population and government is a matter of continuing interest to the CAMG organization. These relations exist with respect to the logistic needs of our troops and the individual needs of our personnel, and also in social and legal fields.

Furthermore, wherever the American soldier goes he soon becomes identified with community endeavors. His openhanded generosity is to be expected as an adjunct to our activities in any country. Typical of these activities, and evidence of the official support they generate, were the Armed Forces assistance program to German youth activi

ties (GYA) and assistance to Korea program (AFAK), each of which augmented the considerable donations of time and money of the troops.

Apart from official support of activities such as GYA and AFAK, the humanitarian response of our military forces has always been prompt and effective in civil disasters such as floods, explosions, and large-scale accidents. Examples were our extensive military flood relief operations in the Netherlands in February 1953, and "Project Mercy," the resettlement in the United States of thousands of Hungarian refugees following the Hungarian revolt in 1956.

CURRENT CAMG

With an ever-increasing destructiveness of modern weapons, both the scope and the importance of CAMG activities will continue to be enlarged. In a possible future war, no matter how much care is taken to minimize its impact on civilians, it is virtually certain that larger numbers than ever before will suffer personal loss, privation, injury, and lack of the basic necessities of life. They probably will not have the guidance, assistance, or control normally provided by their local governments. Continuing damage will certainly contribute to mass hysteria, and tend to convert the previously normal populace into an uncontrolled mob-a frightened, hurt, and disrupted people who seek only to flee further injury with whatever possessions they can carry, and to obtain, by any means possible, what they need to keep alive.

From the viewpoint of a commander of troops operating in the area, the potentialities of such a disorganized population are not difficult to imagine. They will clog the roads, and interfere with or prevent essential movements of troops and supplies. They will require amazing tonnages of military supplies

CONCEPTS

merely to remain alive. They will compel the diversion of combat troops to protect lines of communication and supply installations, and perhaps to neutralize guerrilla action fomented by enemy agents. They can do all this and more-they can all but stop a military operation in its tracks, unless the necessary CAMG controls are planned in advance and put into effect immediately.

It is therefore clear that CAMG operations are required fully as much by military necessity as by humanity and the customs of war. The civil population must be firmly controlled. It must receive the necessary minima of food, clothing, shelter, and medical care. Also, it must be kept informed. Knowledge that help is being offered, to remove the inhabitants out of harm's way if necessary and to provide for their basic needs, will materially reduce their tendency to hysteria and flight, will make them more amenable to control, and will promote their event of our national objecti

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sanitation, and for mobilizing the local resources to meet military requirements and essential civilian needs. The CAMG organization, operating at the "grassroots" level, is also a highly important source of information and intelligence concerning enemy activities.

The commander of troops, through his CAMG operating agencies and his G5, must learn many things about the population under his control: their history, customs, and problems; their social structure, and its areas of sensitivity; their economy; their cultural, religious, and political backgrounds; and the sys

tem of government to which they are accustomed. Also, he must see that his entire command is indoctrinated with CAMG principles and applies them.

CAMG activities begin with the initial planning for an operation, and continue concurrently with all its phases. The moment a commander moves into an area, decisions must be made concerning the civilian population. Such advance planning, and such prompt and correct decisions, may be a material and even an essential contribution to the winning of the victory, and later of the peace.

CAMG ORGANIZATION

The Office of the Chief of Civil Affairs and Military Government, under the staff supervision of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Military Operations in the Department of the Army, has the mission of keeping the Secretary of the Army and the Chief of Staff informed on all CAMG matters.

CAMG TRAINING. Training is conducted at the U. S. Army CAMG School at Fort Gordon (Ga.). Instruction in CAMG doctrine and functions is also given in most Army service schools, and CAMG departments have been established in Reserve schools.

CAMG UNITS. These have been organized in both the Active Army and the Army Reserve. They are composed of specialists in the fields of language, food service, economics, commerce and industry, price control and rationing, property control, public finance, transportation, public safety, public health, public welfare, legal matters, public education, labor, public works and utilities, public communications, public transportation, displaced persons, civil information, and arts, monuments, and archives. The Army Reserve contains 91 CAMG units, and the Active Army has 3 in addition to the CAMG School. The following types of units exist

CAMG Area Headquarters A. It may function as a staff and planning agency within a major headquarters, or as a separate operating command.

CAMG Area Headquarters B. It is similar to Area Headquarters A, but is much smaller and is more flexible.

CAMG Group. It is a self-support

ing operating unit, with the necessary functional teams such as Economics, Public Health, Finance, Public Utilities, Public Safety, Displaced Persons, and others as required. It can perform CAMG operational functions in support of a field army or similar command, or can provide CAMG area support in the administration of a large city, a province, or a similar political subdivision. It can command up to 10 CAMG companies.

CAMG Company. It is also a selfsupporting operating unit, similar to the group, but smaller and normally operating at the corps or lower level. It has 10 organic platoons, which are normally used to support divisions or battle groups.

FUNCTIONING OF UNITS. CAMG units are furnished to field armies as needed. A field army attaches them to corps and divisions as required for direct support, and to other elements of the army as area support. A unit in direct support is assigned to, and moves with, its corps or division, and furnishes CAMG assistance related to the immediate effort. A unit in area support consolidates or "follows up" the gains of battle, and stabilizes control in its assigned area. It remains there as long as needed, and is attached to the same combat unit (division or other) as long as that unit's area includes the community or territory in question. When rear boundaries are advanced so that this is no longer the case, the CAMG unit remains in place, and responsibility for its activities passes to higher headquarters.

Chapter 31

THE ARMY'S PART IN OUR NATION'S DEVELOPMENT

Throughout our history the United ogy, industry, agriculture, transporta

States Army has rendered priceless services to the nation and its people in such fields as public health, construction, waterway development, technol

tion, disaster relief, exploration, and many others. In this respect it is unique among the world's great armies.

PUBLIC HEALTH

In no peaceful field do we owe more to the Army than in that of medicine, sanitation, and public health.

YELLOW FEVER AND THE PANAMA CANAL ZONE. Perhaps the best known contributions of the Army to world health and sanitation are the discovery of the cause of yellow fever and the subsequent cleanup of the Panama Canal Zone.

Yellow fever, first reported in the 17th century, became endemic in tropical areas in the western hemisphere, and produced periodic disastrous epidemics in the Americas and Europe. It was one of the reasons why the French failed to build the Panama Canal.

In 1900 Maj. Walter Reed, head of the U. S. Army Yellow Fever Board, was charged with the responsibility of finding the cause of yellow fever and then eliminating the disease. The board which Reed headed was composed of Maj. James Carroll, Maj. J. W. Lazear (who died from the effects of a mosquito bite in the course of the investigation), and Aristides Agramonte, a native of Cuba.

After unsuccessful experiments Maj. Reed decided to test the theory of

AND MEDICINE

Cuba's Dr. Carlos Finley-that the fever was transmitted by mosquito bite. He had to use human subjects, as no animal was then believed susceptible to the disease. In all, twenty-two volunteers submitted to experiments. The work started in August of 1900, and the board spent eight months in solving the problem. It was proved conclusively that the host and carrier of the disease was the female of the mosquito Aedes aegypti.1

It was Maj. (later The Surgeon General) William C. Gorgas who first put the discovery that mosquitoes transmit yellow fever to a practical application. Gorgas, as Chief Sanitary Officer in Havana, screened yellow fever patients from mosquitoes, destroyed mosquitoes and their breeding places, and by such measures had in three months freed Havana from the disease for the first time. His success in Cuba naturally led to his being put in charge of similar work in the newly acquired Canal Zone.

As plans were being developed for digging the Panama Canal, Gorgas was transferred from Cuba to Washington, D. C., to provide advice on sanitation. For two years he studied the Canal

1 The Secretary of War stated in his annual report: "The brilliant character of this scientific achievement, its inestimable value to mankind, the saving of thousands of lives, and the delivery of the Atlantic Seacoast from constant apprehension demand special recognition from the Government of the United States." Congress directed, and it is still the practice, that the annual U. S. Army Register carry a "Roll of Honor" giving the names and achievements of the 23 men who risked their lives in these experiments.

problem. Actual work on the Canal started in 1904, and Gorgas arrived in Panama in June of that year. Despite difficulties thrown in the way of his work by the three Canal commissioners -President Theodore Roosevelt had to intervene at one time to keep him from being removed as sanitary officer-he not only freed the Zone of yellow fever but made the cities of Panama and Colon models of sanitation. Within three years the disease had vanished from the Canal Zone, and the Army Engineers were enabled to accomplish an astonishing engineering feat where the French engineers who dug the Suez Canal had failed.

CHLORINATION OF WATER. In 1910, Major (later Brigadier General) Carl R. Darnall of the Army Medical Service originated the use of liquid chlorine to purify water. The method has been adopted throughout the world, and, by reducing typhoid fever and other waterborne diseases, has probably saved as many lives as any other medical achievement in human history.

Darnall's experimental work, upon which his method was based, was done at the Army Medical School (now the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research) where he was professor of chemistry, and of which he later became Commandant. There he discovered that the amount of chlorine required to kill various disease-bearing organisms in water did not make the water harmful or unpalatable for drinking. By chlorination, water can be purified in large quantities, and large American cities are now almost entirely dependent upon it, since their original sources of water supply are in most cases unfit for human consumption.

VACCINE FOR ANTHRAX. Anthrax, a serious disease of domestic animals, occasionally affects men, especially those exposed to certain occupational hazards, as in the wool and tanning industries. The only vaccine of reasonable value for use in animals, heretofore, has been a live spore vaccine, first developed by Louis Pasteur. There has been considerable resistance to its use, since it consists of live but presumably attenuated spores. It cannot be used in man.

During and after World War II, sci

entists at Fort Detrick and their colleagues in England developed an entirely new anthrax vaccine. This is a soluble antigen containing no living material which can be produced by cultivation of the organism in a proteinfree medium. It can be used safely in man. It is being tested at the present time with employees of woolen mills in the Philadelphia area, through a collaborative effort with the Pennsylvania State Health Department. There is every reason to believe that it will be a very effective vaccine, which may eventually replace the Pasteurian type of product.

BERIBERI. Soon after the United States took possession of the Philippines, the Army was confronted with a disease which frequently appeared among our newly created Philippine Scouts. The disease, beriberi, was at that time unknown to American doctors. It was usually accompanied by peripheral neuritis, paralysis, and heart failure, and often resulted in death.

There was evidence that it was related to a diet of highly milled white rice. In 1909 the second Army Board for the Study of Tropical Diseases recommended that the ration of the Scouts be changed, substituting unpolished rice and meat for highly milled rice. Thereupon beriberi underwent a sharp decrease, the number of Scouts admitted to hospital falling from 558 in 1909 to 56 in 1910 and to 3 in 1911. The same measures were applied to the diet of all troops in the tropics, resulting in the complete elimination of beriberi in the Army. The method is of course equally applicable to the civilian population of the area.

While several members of the Tropical Board worked on the problem, the name of Captain (later Colonel) Edward B. Vedder is most closely associated with it, because of his prolonged and careful investigations over many years.

ASIAN INFLUENZA. A very recent example of how the Army Medical Service contributes to the health of our nation as a whole is its campaign against Asian influenza. The first information of this outbreak was received at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research in Washington, D. C., on 18 April 1957, in the form of a newspaper report. On the same day the Institute

cabled the 406th Army Medical General Laboratory in Japan, requesting that the laboratory send an officer to Hong Kong to investigate. While the investigator was en route, an aircraft carrier from Hong Kong, with some flu cases aboard, docked at Yokosuka, Japan. Army scientists were on hand to obtain throat washings, which were flown to the Army Institute of Research for identification of the virus involved. Just 34 days after the first reported outbreak, and only 9 days after they had received the throat washings, an Army Institute of Research scientist team headed by Dr. Maurice Hilleman, Chief of the Department of Respiratory Diseases, had determined that the new virus was strikingly different from any previously known strain of influenza. As soon as the virus was identified, Dr. Hilleman advised manufacturers by telephone of the significance of this strain, and of its possible importance as the basis for a new vaccine for mass vaccination. This early action by the Army prompted the pharmaceutical industry to develop a vaccine available to all, and sooner than could otherwise have been expected.

was

DDT. Dichloro-diphenyl- trichloroethane, commonly called DDT, originally synthesized in Germany in 1874. In 1939 it was again synthesized in Switzerland and discovered to be an insecticide. Shortly thereafter we became involved in World War II. Since our supplies of imported insecticides had been cut off by wartime restrictions on trade, the Armed Forces, after making suitable tests, pressed for immediate production of this material for field use. First successful as a louse powder, it became famous in 1943 by its notable achievement in suppressing an epidemic of typhus in Naples in a few months. It came into use in all our important theaters of operation. Countless thousands of servicemen were spared the ravages of malaria, dengue, dysentery, and other insect-borne diseases by virtue of DDT's ability to destroy houseflies, mosquitoes, lice, and fleas. Production reached 3.5 million pounds per month by the end of the

war.

Popular pressure forced the release of DDT for civilian use immediately

after the war, and it was put to many uses all over the country for controlling insects which were a danger to health or crops. However, as its use expanded, reports began to come in of insect strains which had developed a resistance to its effects. In the Korean conflict the houseflies and mosquitoes in some areas could not be controlled by DDT, nor was it effective in delousing North Korean prisoners of war. Fortunately the Quartermaster Corps furnished a newer insecticide, lindane, which averted a possible major typhus outbreak.

The use of DDT has now been considerably reduced by further development of immunity in many insect pests. It has been necessary to synthesize new organic insecticides, such as lindane, chlordane, parathion, and malathion, to serve when DDT fails to give control. However, DDT remains the insecticide of choice where resistant strains of insects have not yet developed. One of its most successful uses by the Armed Forces was its application to woolen cloth, to prevent moth and carpet beetle damage while in storage. To date, several million pounds of cloth have been impregnated, and are protected against insect damage as long as they remain stored.

ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION. In connection with a study of the best treatment of nerve gas casualties, the Armed Services had occasion to look into the techniques of artificial respiration by manual methods. The investigation was made as a joint Army-Navy-Air Force project. It called for a review of existing methods by several experienced contractors, and an experimental comparison of the efficiency of air movement, ease of manipulation, and simplicity of learning. The program was coordinated by the Chemical Corps Medical Laboratories, with the goal of deciding what method or methods to recommend for military use.

As a result, directions for the backpressure arm-lift and back-pressure hip-lift methods of manual artificial respiration were reported by the Medical Laboratories (MLRR 79). The National Research Council held a conference to discuss the evidence and to draw up conclusions and recommenda

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